Religious Movements in 15th–16th Centuries

I. Bhakti Movement

Introduction

• The Bhakti Movement was based on the belief that the relationship between God and humans is established through love, devotion (Bhakti), and worship, rather than through rituals, sacrifices, or religious ceremonies.
• The movement first gained popularity in South India, where it evolved from a religious doctrine into a mass social and religious movement promoting social equality and religious harmony.

Early Phase – The Alvars

• The movement was led by the Alvars, the famous Vaishnavite saint-poets of South India.
• They represented the emotional (devotional) aspect of Vaishnavism.
• Their devotional hymns and collective songs are known as Prabandhas.
• The influence of the early Bhakti movement declined after the 10th century.

Revival of the Bhakti Movement

• The movement was revived in the 11th century by great Acharyas (philosophers and religious teachers).
• These Acharyas represented the philosophical and intellectual side of Vaishnavism.
• Among them, the most influential was Ramanuja.
• Ramananda, a disciple of Ramanuja, carried the Bhakti Movement to North India.

Main Features of the Bhakti Movement

1. Rejected rituals, sacrifices, and elaborate religious ceremonies.
2. Emphasised purity of heart, devotion (Bhakti), humanism, and moral conduct.
3. Monotheistic in nature.
4. Believed that God may have a form (Saguna) or be formless (Nirguna).
5. Considered knowledge (Jnana) as a means of attaining salvation.
6. Opposed caste discrimination and promoted social equality.
7. Declared Bhajans (devotional songs) and personal devotion as the best forms of worship.
8. Rejected the monopoly of the priestly class in religious practices.
9. Saints preached in local and regional languages, making religion accessible to the common people.

Major Vaishnava Philosophical Schools

Bhakti Saints

Ramanuja (1017–1137 AD)

• Ramanuja was a great Vaishnava saint from South India.
• He was the earliest and most influential exponent of the Bhakti Movement.
• He propounded the philosophy of Vishishtadvaita (Qualified Non-dualism).

Ramananda (14th–15th Century)

• Ramananda was the foremost Bhakti saint of North India.
• A disciple of Ramanuja, he spread the Bhakti Movement across North India.
• He opened the doors of Bhakti to all people irrespective of caste, creed, birth or gender.

Kabir (1440–1510 AD)

• Kabir was the most radical disciple of Ramananda.
• He opposed caste discrimination, idol worship, and meaningless rituals.
• He preached social equality, religious harmony, and unity between Hindus and Muslims.

Guru Nanak (1469–1538 AD)

• Guru Nanak was a Nirguna Bhakti saint and a great social reformer.
• He founded Sikhism and became the first Sikh Guru.

Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486–1533 AD)

• Chaitanya was one of the greatest saints of the Krishna Bhakti tradition.
• He founded the Gaudiya (Bengal) Vaishnavism school.
• He popularised devotion through love and ecstatic singing (Kirtan).

Vidyapati (14th–15th Century)

• Vidyapati was the famous Maithili saint-poet.
• He composed thousands of devotional and love lyrics on Radha and Krishna, collectively known as Padavali.

Purandara Dasa (1480–1564 AD)

• Purandara Dasa was the greatest Vaishnava saint-composer of Karnataka.
• He is regarded as the Father of Carnatic Music for laying its strong foundation.

Mirabai (1498–1546 AD)

• Mirabai was the Rathore princess of Merta and the daughter-in-law of Rana Sanga of Mewar.
• She is the most celebrated woman Bhakti saint of the Krishna Bhakti tradition.
• She devoted her entire life to the worship of Lord Krishna.

Vallabhacharya (1479–1531 AD)

• Vallabhacharya was an eminent saint of the Krishna Bhakti tradition.
• He propounded the philosophy of Pushti Marg (Path of Grace).

Surdas (1483–1563 AD)

• Surdas was the famous blind poet of Agra.
• He composed Sursagar, glorifying the life and deeds of Lord Krishna.

Tulsidas (1532–1623 AD)

• Tulsidas was the greatest saint-poet of the Rama Bhakti tradition.
• He authored the celebrated works:
  
  • Ramcharitmanas
  • Kavitavali
  • Gitavali

Shankar Deva (1449–1568 AD)

• Shankar Deva founded the Vaishnava devotional movement in Assam.
• He played a pivotal role in spreading Neo-Vaishnavism (Ekasarana Dharma) in North-East India.

Dadu Dayal (1544–1603 AD)

• Dadu Dayal was a Nirguna Bhakti saint belonging to the tanner community.
• He was born in Gujarat but spent most of his life in Rajasthan.
• He founded the Dadu Panth.

Tyagaraja (1767–1847 AD)

• Tyagaraja was a renowned Telugu saint-composer who spent most of his life in Tamil Nadu.
• He is regarded as one of the greatest composers of Carnatic Music.
• He worshipped Lord Rama, whom he considered the incarnation of Lord Vishnu and the hero of Valmiki’s Ramayana.

Bhakti Saints

Ramanuja (1017–1137 AD)

• Ramanuja was a great Vaishnava saint from South India.
• He was the earliest and most influential exponent of the Bhakti Movement.
• He propounded the philosophy of Vishishtadvaita (Qualified Non-dualism).

Ramananda (14th–15th Century)

• Ramananda was the foremost Bhakti saint of North India.
• A disciple of Ramanuja, he spread the Bhakti Movement across North India.
• He opened the doors of Bhakti to all people irrespective of caste, creed, birth or gender.

Kabir (1440–1510 AD)

• Kabir was the most radical disciple of Ramananda.
• He opposed caste discrimination, idol worship, and meaningless rituals.
• He preached social equality, religious harmony, and unity between Hindus and Muslims.

Guru Nanak (1469–1538 AD)

• Guru Nanak was a Nirguna Bhakti saint and a great social reformer.
• He founded Sikhism and became the first Sikh Guru.

Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486–1533 AD)

• Chaitanya was one of the greatest saints of the Krishna Bhakti tradition.
• He founded the Gaudiya (Bengal) Vaishnavism school.
• He popularised devotion through love and ecstatic singing (Kirtan).

Vidyapati (14th–15th Century)

• Vidyapati was the famous Maithili saint-poet.
• He composed thousands of devotional and love lyrics on Radha and Krishna, collectively known as Padavali.

Purandara Dasa (1480–1564 AD)

• Purandara Dasa was the greatest Vaishnava saint-composer of Karnataka.
• He is regarded as the Father of Carnatic Music for laying its strong foundation.

Mirabai (1498–1546 AD)

• Mirabai was the Rathore princess of Merta and the daughter-in-law of Rana Sanga of Mewar.
• She is the most celebrated woman Bhakti saint of the Krishna Bhakti tradition.
• She devoted her entire life to the worship of Lord Krishna.

Vallabhacharya (1479–1531 AD)

• Vallabhacharya was an eminent saint of the Krishna Bhakti tradition.
• He propounded the philosophy of Pushti Marg (Path of Grace).

Surdas (1483–1563 AD)

• Surdas was the famous blind poet of Agra.
• He composed Sursagar, glorifying the life and deeds of Lord Krishna.

Tulsidas (1532–1623 AD)

• Tulsidas was the greatest saint-poet of the Rama Bhakti tradition.
• He authored the celebrated works:
  
  • Ramcharitmanas
  • Kavitavali
  • Gitavali

Shankar Deva (1449–1568 AD)

• Shankar Deva founded the Vaishnava devotional movement in Assam.
• He played a pivotal role in spreading Neo-Vaishnavism (Ekasarana Dharma) in North-East India.

Dadu Dayal (1544–1603 AD)

• Dadu Dayal was a Nirguna Bhakti saint belonging to the tanner community.
• He was born in Gujarat but spent most of his life in Rajasthan.
• He founded the Dadu Panth.

Tyagaraja (1767–1847 AD)

• Tyagaraja was a renowned Telugu saint-composer who spent most of his life in Tamil Nadu.
• He is regarded as one of the greatest composers of Carnatic Music.
• He worshipped Lord Rama, whom he considered the incarnation of Lord Vishnu and the hero of Valmiki’s Ramayana.

II. Sufi Movement

Introduction

• Sufism is the mystical movement in Islam.
• While accepting the Shariat (Islamic law), the Sufis did not restrict themselves to formal religious practices.
• Instead, they emphasised personal spiritual experience and the direct perception of God.

Philosophy of Sufism

• The central doctrine of Sufism is the union of the soul with God through:
  
  • Love
  • Faith
  • Prayer
  • Fasting
  • Devotion
• It gave greater importance to inner spiritual experience than to external rituals and religious distinctions.

Main Features of the Sufi Movement

1. Organised into different Silsilas (Orders).
2. Absorbed ideas and practices from Hinduism, Christianity, Buddhism and Zoroastrianism.
3. Emphasised service to humanity through spiritual self-development.
4. Promoted Hindu–Muslim unity and cultural synthesis.
5. Opposed orthodoxy and preached faith and devotion to God.
6. Discouraged materialistic life, though it did not advocate complete renunciation.

Sufi Saints

Khwaja Ali Hujwiri (11th Century)

• Also known as Data Ganj Bakhsh.
• Considered the earliest eminent Sufi saint to settle in India.
• Authored the famous manual on Sufism titled Kashf-ul-Mahjub.

Shaikh Bahauddin Zakariya (1182–1262)

• Founder of the Suhrawardi Order in India.
• Established the first leading Khanqah at Multan.

Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti (1141–1236)

• Founder of the Chishti Order in India.
• The first and most liberal Sufi order in India.
• Settled at Ajmer around 1206 AD.

  Important Chishti Saints

• • Shaikh Hamiduddin Nagauri (1192–1274) – Prominent disciple of Muinuddin Chishti.
  • Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki (d.1236) – The Qutub Minar was completed by Iltutmish in his memory.
  • Baba Fariduddin Ganj-i-Shakar (1175–1265) – Popularly known as Baba Farid; established his Khanqah at Ajodhan (Punjab) and became the first great Punjabi Sufi poet.
  • Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya (1236–1325) – Built his Khanqah in Delhi and earned the title Mehboob-i-Ilahi (Beloved of God).
  • Shaikh Nasiruddin Mahmud (d.1365) – Famous as Chirag-i-Delhi (Lamp of Delhi).
  • Syed Muhammad Gesu Daraz (d.1421) – Settled at Gulbarga (Karnataka) and was popularly known as Bandanawaz (“Benefactor of God’s Creatures”). He authored more than 30 books on Sufism and was among the earliest writers in Urdu.

Shaikh Badruddin Samarkandi (13th Century)

• Founded the Firdausi Order, whose influence remained largely confined to Bihar.

Shah Niyamatullah Qadiri & Shah Abdullah Shuttari (15th Century)

• Shah Niyamatullah Qadiri founded the Qadiriya Order.
• Shah Abdullah Shuttari (d.1458) founded the Shuttari Order.
• The Shuttari Order first spread in Uttar Pradesh and the Deccan, and later expanded into Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat.
• Miyan Mir (1550–1635) became its most celebrated saint.

Khwaja Baqi Billah (1563–1603)

• Founder of the Naqshbandi Order in India.
• The most famous saint of this order was Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi (Mujaddid Alf-i-Sani).

Important Sufi Terms

Achievements of the Bhakti and Sufi Movements

1. The Bhakti and Sufi Movements influenced each other and shared several common ideals.
2. Both movements helped liberalise Hinduism and Islam.
3. They opposed religious orthodoxy and ritualism.
4. Both encouraged social reform and equality.
5. They promoted inter-religious harmony and strengthened Hindu–Muslim brotherhood.
6. They contributed significantly to the growth of regional languages and literature.
7. Their ideals of cultural synthesis helped transform the Muslim rule in India into a more Indianised political system, reaching its fullest expression during the reign of Akbar.