Mughal Period - Babur, Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir

Mughal Period (1526–1540 AD and 1555–1857 AD)

Table of Contents

Babur (1526–1530 AD)

Foundation of the Mughal Empire

Babur laid the foundation of the Mughal Empire in India in 1526 AD.
He was a descendant of Timur from his father’s side and Chengiz Khan from his mother’s side.

Major Battles

In the First Battle of Panipat (21 April 1526), Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodhi and established Mughal rule in India.
In 1527, he defeated Rana Sanga of Mewar in the Battle of Khanwa.
In 1528, he defeated Medini Rai at the Battle of Chanderi.
In 1529, he defeated Mahmud Lodhi (uncle of Ibrahim Lodhi) at the Battle of Ghaghra.

Military Reforms

Babur introduced the Tulughma System and the Flanking Party System in warfare.
He was the first ruler in India to use gunpowder and artillery effectively in battles.

Literary Contributions

Babur wrote his autobiography, Tuzuk-i-Baburi (Baburnama), in the Turki language.
The Baburnama was translated into Persian by Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan.
It was later translated into English by Mrs. Annette Susannah Beveridge.
Babur also compiled two collections of poems:
- Diwan (in Turki)
- Mubaiyan (in Persian)
He also wrote Risala-i-Usaz (Letters of Babur).

Death

Babur died at Agra in 1530 AD.
His tomb is located at Kabul (Afghanistan).

Humayun (1530–1540 AD & 1555–1556 AD)

Accession

Humayun, the son of Babur, ascended the Mughal throne in 1530 AD.
His rule was challenged by his brothers Kamran, Hindal, Askari, and the Afghan chiefs.

Battles Against Sher Shah

Humayun fought two decisive battles against Sher Shah Suri:
- Battle of Chausa (1539 AD)
- Battle of Kannauj/Bilgram (1540 AD)
He was defeated in both battles and lost the Mughal throne.

Exile and Restoration

After his defeat, Humayun took refuge in Iran (Persia), where he spent about 12 years in exile.
Following the death of Sher Shah Suri, Humayun reconquered India in 1555 AD by defeating the Afghan rulers and regained the Mughal throne.

Architecture

Humayun built Din Panah at Delhi, which served as his second capital.

Literary Reference

His sister, Gulbadan Begum, wrote his biography titled Humayunnama.

Death

In 1556 AD, Humayun died after falling from the staircase of his library at Din Panah.
He was buried at Delhi, where the famous Humayun’s Tomb was later constructed.

Sur Empire (Second Afghan Empire): 1540–1555 AD

Sher Shah Suri (1540–1545 AD)

Early Life

Sher Shah Suri was the son of Hasan Khan, the Jagirdar of Sasaram.
Ibrahim Lodhi had transferred Hasan Khan’s Jagir to Sher Shah.
In 1527–28, Sher Shah joined the service of Babur.
Later, he returned to South Bihar and became the Deputy Governor under the minor ruler Jalal Khan Lohani, son of Bahar Khan Lohani.
He seized the throne by assuming the title Hazrat-i-Ala.
He captured the strategic Chunar Fort by marrying Lad Malika, the widow of the former governor.

Major Battles and Conquests

In 1539 AD, Sher Shah defeated Humayun in the Battle of Chausa and assumed the title Sher Shah.
In 1540 AD, he again defeated Humayun in the Battle of Kannauj (Bilgram) and annexed Kannauj, establishing the Sur Empire.
During his reign, he conquered:
- Malwa (1542 AD)
- Ranthambore (1542 AD)
- Raisin (1543 AD)
- Rajputana and Marwar (1542 AD)
- Chittor (1544 AD)
- Kalinjar (1545 AD)
Sher Shah died in 1545 AD while besieging Kalinjar Fort.

Administrative Reforms

Although he ruled for only five years, Sher Shah introduced one of the best administrative systems in medieval India.
His reforms greatly improved the economic condition and administrative efficiency of the empire.
He introduced the Rupiya (Rupee) as a standard silver coin.
He standardised weights and measures throughout the empire.
He developed an extensive road communication network, including the famous Grand Trunk Road (G.T. Road) connecting Calcutta (Kolkata) to Peshawar.
He established military cantonments with permanent garrisons at important locations.
He introduced the principle of local responsibility for law and order. Muqaddams were held responsible and punished if criminals were not traced.

Land Revenue Reforms

Agricultural land was systematically measured.
One-third (1/3) of the average produce was fixed as land revenue.
Every cultivator received a Patta (Title Deed) specifying the area of land and revenue demand.
A Qabuliyat (Deed of Agreement) was signed by the cultivator accepting the assessment.
The powers of the Zamindars were curtailed, and taxes were collected directly by the State.

Public Works

Sher Shah constructed the Purana Qila (Old Fort) at Delhi.
He was buried at Sasaram (Bihar), where his magnificent mausoleum still stands.

Administrative Units

Administrative Unit	Head
Iqta (Province)	Haqim and Amin
Sarkar (District)	Shiqdar-i-Shiqdaran and Munsif-i-Munsifan
Pargana (Taluka)	Shiqdar and Munsif
Gram (Village)	Muqaddam and Amil

Successors of Sher Shah

Islam Shah (1545–1554 AD) succeeded Sher Shah after his death.
He was followed by Muhammad Adil Shah (1554–1555 AD), the last important ruler of the Sur Dynasty.

Akbar (1556–1605 AD)

Accession and Early Rule

Akbar, the eldest son of Humayun, ascended the Mughal throne in 1556 AD at the age of 14.
He assumed the imperial title Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar Badshah Ghazi.
His guardian and regent was Bairam Khan.

Second Battle of Panipat (1556)

The Second Battle of Panipat was fought on 5 November 1556 between:
- Hemu (the Hindu general of Muhammad Adil Shah)
- Bairam Khan, acting on behalf of Akbar.
Hemu was defeated, captured and executed.
The victory ended the Mughal–Afghan struggle for Delhi and enabled Akbar to recover Delhi and Agra.

End of Regency

In 1560, Akbar dismissed Bairam Khan and assumed direct control of the empire.
Between 1560 and 1562, the administration remained under the influence of Maham Anaga and Adham Khan. This phase is known as the Petticoat Government (1560–62).

Rajput Policy

Akbar adopted a policy of friendship and alliance towards the Rajputs.
The Sisodiyas of Mewar, under Rana Udai Singh and later Rana Pratap, offered strong resistance.
He inducted several Rajput rulers into the Mughal nobility and treated them as equals.
In 1562, Akbar married Harka Bai, daughter of Raja Bharmal (Bihari Mal), the Kachhwaha ruler of Amber (Jaipur).
Most Rajput states accepted Akbar’s suzerainty, except Rana Pratap Singh and later Amar Singh of Mewar.

Battle of Haldighati (1576)

The Battle of Haldighati was fought in 1576 AD between:
- Rana Pratap of Mewar
- The Mughal army led by Raja Man Singh of Amber.
Although Rana Pratap was defeated, he never accepted Mughal supremacy and continued his struggle.

Major Conquests

Year	Province Conquered	From
1561–62	Malwa	Baz Bahadur
1561	Chunar	Afghans
1562	Merta	Jaimal
1564	Gondwana (Garha-Katanga)	Rani Durgavati (Regent of Bir Narayan)
1568	Chittor	Rana Udai Singh
1569	Ranthambore	Surjan Hada
1569	Kalinjar	Ram Chandra
1570	Marwar	Chandrasen, Kalyanmal, Rai Singh and Rawal Harraj
1572	Gujarat	Bahadur Shah
1574–76	Bengal–Bihar	Daud Khan Karrani
1576	Haldighati	Rana Pratap
1581	Kabul	Mirza Hakim
1585–86	Kashmir	Yusuf Khan and Yakub Khan
1590–91	Sindh	Jani Beg Mirza
1590–92	Orissa	Kutlu Khan and Nisar Khan
1591	Khandesh	Ali Khan
1595	Baluchistan	Yusufzai Tribes
1595	Kandahar	Muzaffar Husain Mirza
1597–1600	Ahmadnagar	Chand Bibi (Regent of Bahadur Shah)
1601	Asirgarh	Miran Bahadur Khan

Religious Policy

In 1582, Akbar introduced a new faith called Din-i-Ilahi (Tauhid-i-Ilahi).
It was based on the best principles of Hinduism, Islam, Jainism and Christianity.
The religion recognised Akbar as its spiritual guide, but Birbal was the only Hindu to accept it.
Din-i-Ilahi never gained widespread popularity.

Architecture

Akbar built several magnificent monuments, including:

Fatehpur Sikri
Agra Fort
Lahore Fort
Allahabad Fort
Humayun’s Tomb (completed during his reign)

Fatehpur Sikri

- Built near Agra after the blessings of the Sufi saint Shaikh Salim Chishti.
- After the birth of his son Salim (later Jahangir), Akbar shifted his capital from Agra to Fatehpur Sikri in honour of the saint.

Patron of Learning

Akbar was a great patron of art, literature and scholarship.
His court was adorned by the Navaratnas (Nine Gems).

Navaratnas (Nine Gems of Akbar)

Birbal – Administrator and trusted adviser
Abul Fazl – Scholar, historian and statesman
Faizi – Poet and scholar; brother of Abul Fazl
Raja Todar Mal – Finance Minister; introduced the Dahsala Bandobast (Zabti) System
Raja Bhagwan Das – Mansabdar; father of Raja Man Singh
Raja Man Singh – Distinguished general and Mansabdar
Tansen – Legendary musician
Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan – Statesman, poet and Hindi scholar
Mulla Do Pyaza – Court adviser (traditional account)

The great poet Tulsidas, author of Ramcharitmanas, also lived during Akbar’s reign.

Important Reforms and Events

Year	Event
1562	First visit to Ajmer
1562	Prohibited the forcible conversion of war prisoners
1563	Abolished the Pilgrimage Tax
1564	Abolished Jizya
1571	Foundation of Fatehpur Sikri
1574	Introduced the Mansabdari System
1575	Construction of the Ibadat Khana
1575	Began the Parliament of Religions in the Ibadat Khana
1579	Issued the Mahzar (Drafted by Faizi)
1580	Introduced the Dahsala Bandobast revenue system
1582	Introduced Din-i-Ilahi (Tauhid-i-Ilahi)
1584	Started the Ilahi Samvat (Ilahi Era/Calendar)
1587	Raja Jai Singh founded Jaipur

Death

Akbar died in 1605 AD.
He was buried at Sikandra, near Agra.

Important Facts

Akbar is regarded as the real founder of the Mughal Empire in India.
He was the first Mughal ruler to separate religion from politics.
Birbal was killed while fighting the Yusufzai tribes in 1586 AD.
Abul Fazl was assassinated by Bir Singh Bundela in 1602 AD.
Akbar made Persian the official language of the Mughal Empire.

Jahangir (1605–1627 AD)

Accession

Jahangir, originally named Salim, was the son of Akbar.
He ascended the Mughal throne in 1605 AD after Akbar’s death.
At the beginning of his reign, he issued 12 ordinances to improve administration and governance.

Administration and Justice

Jahangir was renowned for his strict administration of justice.
He established the famous Zanjir-i-Adl (Chain of Justice) at Agra Fort, enabling any subject to seek direct royal justice.

Nur Jahan’s Influence

In 1611 AD, Jahangir married Mehr-un-Nisa, the widow of the Persian noble Sher Afghan of Bengal.
After marriage, she received the title Nur Jahan.
She exercised immense influence over the Mughal administration and was honoured with the title Padshah Begum.
Jahangir issued coins jointly in the names of himself and Nur Jahan, reflecting her political authority.

Marriage Alliance

Jahangir also married Manmati (Jagat Gosai/Jodha Bai) of Marwar, a Kachhwaha Rajput princess.

Relations with the English

In 1608 AD, Captain William Hawkins, the representative of the English East India Company, visited Jahangir’s court.
- He was granted the Mansab of 400.
In 1615 AD, Sir Thomas Roe, ambassador of King James I of England, arrived at Jahangir’s court.
- Although Jahangir initially refused his request, he later granted permission to the English to establish a trading factory at Surat.

Military Achievements

Rana Amar Singh of Mewar submitted to Jahangir in 1615 AD, bringing Mewar under Mughal influence.
In 1620 AD, Jahangir conquered the strong Kangra Fort.
A portion of Ahmadnagar was also annexed.
Malik Ambar restored Balaghat (Maharashtra) to the Mughal Empire.

Revolts During His Reign

Jahangir’s reign witnessed several important rebellions:

Prince Khusrau, supported by the 5th Sikh Guru, Guru Arjun Dev, revolted against Jahangir in 1605 AD.
As punishment for blessing the rebel prince, Guru Arjun Dev was executed in 1606 AD.
During the later years of Jahangir’s reign, his son Prince Khurram (later Shah Jahan) rebelled against him (1622–1625 AD).
Mahavat Khan, Jahangir’s powerful military commander, also revolted in 1626–1627 AD.

Literary Contribution

Jahangir wrote his autobiography Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri in the Persian language.

Death

Jahangir died in 1627 AD.
He was buried at Lahore (Pakistan).

Jahangir (1605–1627 AD)

Accession

Jahangir, originally named Salim, was the son of Akbar.
He ascended the Mughal throne in 1605 AD after Akbar’s death.
At the beginning of his reign, he issued 12 ordinances to improve administration and governance.

Administration and Justice

Jahangir was renowned for his strict administration of justice.
He established the famous Zanjir-i-Adl (Chain of Justice) at Agra Fort, enabling any subject to seek direct royal justice.

Nur Jahan’s Influence

In 1611 AD, Jahangir married Mehr-un-Nisa, the widow of the Persian noble Sher Afghan of Bengal.
After marriage, she received the title Nur Jahan.
She exercised immense influence over the Mughal administration and was honoured with the title Padshah Begum.
Jahangir issued coins jointly in the names of himself and Nur Jahan, reflecting her political authority.

Marriage Alliance

Jahangir also married Manmati (Jagat Gosai/Jodha Bai) of Marwar, a Kachhwaha Rajput princess.

Relations with the English

In 1608 AD, Captain William Hawkins, the representative of the English East India Company, visited Jahangir’s court.
- He was granted the Mansab of 400.
In 1615 AD, Sir Thomas Roe, ambassador of King James I of England, arrived at Jahangir’s court.
- Although Jahangir initially refused his request, he later granted permission to the English to establish a trading factory at Surat.

Military Achievements

Rana Amar Singh of Mewar submitted to Jahangir in 1615 AD, bringing Mewar under Mughal influence.
In 1620 AD, Jahangir conquered the strong Kangra Fort.
A portion of Ahmadnagar was also annexed.
Malik Ambar restored Balaghat (Maharashtra) to the Mughal Empire.

Revolts During His Reign

Jahangir’s reign witnessed several important rebellions:

Prince Khusrau, supported by the 5th Sikh Guru, Guru Arjun Dev, revolted against Jahangir in 1605 AD.
As punishment for blessing the rebel prince, Guru Arjun Dev was executed in 1606 AD.
During the later years of Jahangir’s reign, his son Prince Khurram (later Shah Jahan) rebelled against him (1622–1625 AD).
Mahavat Khan, Jahangir’s powerful military commander, also revolted in 1626–1627 AD.

Literary Contribution

Jahangir wrote his autobiography Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri in the Persian language.

Death

Jahangir died in 1627 AD.
He was buried at Lahore (Pakistan).

Shah Jahan (1628–1658 AD)

Accession

Shah Jahan ascended the Mughal throne in 1628 AD after the death of his father Jahangir.
His mother was Jagat Gosai (Jodha Bai), daughter of Raja Jagat Singh.
He is regarded as one of the greatest Mughal rulers for his Deccan policy and foreign policy.

Early Challenges

Soon after his accession, Shah Jahan faced two major rebellions:
- Bundelkhand Revolt led by Jujhar Singh Bundela of Orchha (1628–1635 AD).
- Deccan Revolt led by Khan-i-Jahan Lodhi, the Mughal Governor of the Deccan (1629–1631 AD).

Mumtaz Mahal and the Taj Mahal

In 1631 AD, his beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal (original name Arjumand Banu Begum) died.
To commemorate her memory, Shah Jahan built the Taj Mahal at Agra between 1632 and 1653 AD.

Military Campaigns

In 1631–32 AD, Shah Jahan defeated the Portuguese.
In 1633 AD, he annexed the Nizam Shahi Kingdom of Ahmadnagar into the Mughal Empire.
In 1636 AD, the Bijapur and Golconda Sultanates accepted Mughal suzerainty.

Central Asian and North-West Frontier Policy

Shah Jahan launched campaigns towards Balkh to strengthen the defence of North-Western India.
In 1638 AD, he recovered Kandahar (Afghanistan) from the Iranians (Safavids).
However, Kandahar was lost again to the Safavids in 1647 AD, despite three military expeditions led by Prince Murad, Aurangzeb, and Dara Shikoh.

Contemporary Travellers

The reign of Shah Jahan was described by several European travellers:

François Bernier (French traveller)
Jean-Baptiste Tavernier (French traveller)
Niccolao Manucci (Italian traveller)
Peter Mundy, who recorded the famine that occurred during Shah Jahan’s reign.

Patron of Art and Architecture

Shah Jahan’s reign is regarded as the Golden Age of Mughal Architecture.
His period marked the highest point of Mughal art, culture and architecture.
Some of his most famous monuments include:
- Taj Mahal
- Red Fort (Lal Qila), Delhi
- Jama Masjid, Delhi

War of Succession (1657–1659 AD)

Shah Jahan’s illness in 1657 AD triggered a bitter struggle for the Mughal throne among his four sons.
Aurangzeb emerged victorious and crowned himself emperor in July 1658 AD.

Major Battles of the War of Succession

Battle	Date	Contesting Princes
Battle of Bahadurpur (near Banaras)	February 1658	Dara Shikoh vs Shah Shuja
Battle of Dharmat (near Ujjain)	April 1658	Dara Shikoh vs Aurangzeb & Murad
Battle of Samugarh (near Agra)	May 1658	Dara Shikoh vs Aurangzeb & Murad
Battle of Khajua (near Allahabad)	December 1658	Aurangzeb vs Shah Shuja
Battle of Deorai (near Ajmer)	March 1659	Aurangzeb vs Dara Shikoh

Imprisonment and Death

After Aurangzeb’s victory, Shah Jahan was imprisoned in the Agra Fort by his son.
He remained in captivity until his death in 1666 AD.
Shah Jahan was buried beside Mumtaz Mahal in the Taj Mahal, Agra.

Aurangzeb (1658–1707 AD)

Accession

Aurangzeb secured the Mughal throne after defeating Dara Shikoh in the battles of:
- Dharmat (1658)
- Samugarh (1658) – the decisive battle
- Deorai (1659) – the final battle
After his victory, he was crowned at Delhi with the imperial title Alamgir.
He ruled the Mughal Empire for 50 years (1658–1707 AD).
Aurangzeb died in February 1707 AD at Ahmadnagar.

Early Phase of His Reign (1658–1681)

During the first 23 years, Aurangzeb mainly concentrated on consolidating North India.
During this period, the Marathas under Shivaji emerged as the most powerful challenge to Mughal authority.

Policy Towards the Sikhs

In 1675 AD, Aurangzeb arrested and executed Guru Tegh Bahadur, the 9th Sikh Guru, after he refused to embrace Islam.
His son, Guru Gobind Singh, the 10th Sikh Guru, organised the Sikhs into the Khalsa, a community of warrior-saints, to resist Mughal oppression and avenge his father’s death.
Guru Gobind Singh was assassinated in 1708 AD by an Afghan at Nanded (Deccan).
After his death, Banda Bairagi (Banda Singh Bahadur) continued the Sikh struggle against the Mughals.

Revolts During Aurangzeb’s Reign

I. Revolts in North India (1658–1681)

Revolt	Year	Leader(s)	Cause
Jat Revolt	1669	Gokula, Rajaram, Churamani	Agrarian policy
Bundela Revolt	1671	Champat Rai, Chhatrasal	Political and religious grievances
Satnami Revolt	1673	Followers of the Satnami Sect	Religious oppression
Sikh Revolt	1675	Guru Tegh Bahadur, Guru Gobind Singh	Religious persecution
Rajput Revolt (Marwar)	1678	Durgadas (General of Ajit Singh)	Succession dispute of Marwar

II. Revolts in South India (1682–1707)

Event	Year	Leader	Reason
Annexation of Bijapur	1686	Sikandar Adil Shah	Violation of treaty
Annexation of Golconda	1687	Abul Hasan Qutb Shah	Helping the Marathas
Mughal–Maratha Struggle	1689 onwards	Sambhaji, Rajaram, Tarabai	Rise of Maratha nationalism

Aurangzeb and the Marathas

In 1682 AD, Aurangzeb left North India and spent the remaining 25 years (1682–1707 AD) in the Deccan, attempting to crush the Marathas.
Shivaji emerged as Aurangzeb’s greatest rival.
Unable to defeat Shivaji militarily, Aurangzeb sent Raja Jai Singh of Amber against him in 1665 AD.
As part of the agreement, Shivaji visited Aurangzeb’s court but was imprisoned.
Shivaji escaped in 1666 AD and, in 1674 AD, crowned himself as an independent ruler (Chhatrapati).
Shivaji died in 1680 AD and was succeeded by Sambhaji.
Sambhaji was executed by the Mughals in 1689 AD.
Leadership then passed to Rajaram, and after his death in 1700 AD, Tarabai continued the Maratha resistance.

Deccan Conquests

The Mughal expansion in the Deccan reached its peak under Aurangzeb.
Bijapur was annexed in 1686 AD.
Golconda was annexed in 1687 AD.

Death

Aurangzeb died in 1707 AD.
He was buried at Khuldabad (Daulatabad), Maharashtra.
He was popularly known as Zinda Pir (Living Saint).

Religious Policy

Aurangzeb re-imposed the Jizya Tax on non-Muslims in 1679 AD.
Despite his orthodox policies, Hindu Mansabdars continued to occupy a significant proportion of high administrative posts.

Important Years of Aurangzeb’s Religious Policy

Year	Measure
1665	Prohibited the inscription of Kalima on coins, banned Nauroz Festival, and appointed Muhtasibs (Moral Censors).
1668	Prohibited the Sati practice.
1668	Banned the Hindu Festival of Holi.
1669	Ended Jharokha Darshan and prohibited music at the Mughal court.
1670	Abolished the ceremony of Tuladan (weighing the emperor against gold or valuables).
1679	Re-imposed Jizya Tax.

Decline of the Mughal Empire

After Aurangzeb’s death, the Mughal Empire rapidly declined due to several factors:

Aurangzeb’s Rajput, Deccan and religious policies weakened imperial unity.
Weak and incompetent successors failed to maintain the empire.
Frequent wars of succession created political instability.
Increasing factionalism among the nobility.
The Jagirdari Crisis reduced administrative efficiency.
The rise of powerful regional states such as the Marathas, and later Bengal, Hyderabad, Awadh and Mysore.
Foreign invasions, especially by Nadir Shah (1739 AD) and Ahmad Shah Abdali.
Ultimately, the British conquest of India brought Mughal rule to an end.

Later Mughals

Bahadur Shah I (1707–1712 AD)

- Original Name: Muazzam
- Imperial Title: Shah Alam I
- He became the Mughal Emperor after the death of Aurangzeb.
- He abolished the Jizya Tax, which had been re-imposed by Aurangzeb.

Jahandar Shah (1712–1713 AD)

- Jahandar Shah ascended the throne with the support of Zulfiqar Khan.

Farrukh Siyar (1713–1719 AD)

- Farrukh Siyar became emperor with the support of the powerful Sayyid Brothers:
  - Abdullah Khan
  - Husain Ali Khan

Muhammad Shah (1719–1748 AD)

- During 1738–39 AD, Nadir Shah invaded India.
- He plundered Delhi and carried away:
  - Takht-i-Taus (Peacock Throne)
  - Koh-i-Noor Diamond

Ahmad Shah (1748–1754 AD)

- During his reign, Ahmad Shah Abdali (the former general of Nadir Shah) invaded India.
- The Mughals were compelled to cede Punjab and Multan to him.

Alamgir II (1754–1759 AD)

- During his reign, Ahmad Shah Abdali occupied Delhi.
- Later, Delhi was plundered by the Marathas.

Shah Alam II (1759–1806 AD)

- During his reign, Najib Khan became extremely powerful in Delhi.
- Shah Alam II remained unable to enter Delhi for nearly 12 years because of Najib Khan’s dominance.

Akbar II (1806–1837 AD)

- Akbar II became a pensioner of the East India Company, symbolising the decline of Mughal authority.

Bahadur Shah II (1837–1857 AD)

- Bahadur Shah II (Bahadur Shah Zafar) was the last Mughal Emperor.
- He became the symbolic leader of the Revolt of 1857.
- After the failure of the revolt, he was deported to Rangoon (Burma, present-day Myanmar) in 1858.
- He died in 1862 AD at Rangoon.

Mughal Administration

Territorial Administration

The Mughal Empire was divided into Subas (Provinces).
Each Suba was further divided into:
- Sarkar (District)
- Pargana (Taluka)
- Gram (Village)
Other important territorial divisions included:
- Khalisa – Royal Crown Lands
- Jagirs – Assigned lands given mainly to officials
- Inams – Revenue-free lands granted for religious or charitable purposes
During Akbar’s reign, the empire consisted of 15 Subas, which increased to 20 Subas under Aurangzeb.

Administrative Units

Administrative Unit	Officer In-charge
Suba (Province)	Sipahsalar / Subedar / Nizam (Executive Head), Diwan (Revenue Head)
Sarkar (District)	Faujdar (Administrative Head), Amal / Amalguzar (Revenue Officer)
Pargana (Taluka)	Shiqdar (Administrative Officer), Amin and Qanungo (Revenue Officers)
Gram (Village)	Muqaddam (Village Headman), Patwari (Accountant)

Mansabdari System

Introduction

- Akbar introduced the Mansabdari System.
- The term Mansab means rank or position.
- The system combined civil and military administration.
- Most Mughal nobles, military officers and civil officials held a Mansab.

Components of Mansab

The Mughal Mansab consisted of two ranks:

- Zat – Determined the personal rank, salary and social status.
- Sawar – Specified the number of cavalrymen a Mansabdar had to maintain.

Categories of Mansabdars

Mansabdars were classified into three categories:

1. Mansabdars
2. Amirs
3. Amir-i-Umda

Modes of Payment

Mansabdars were paid through two methods:

- Naqdi – Payment in cash.
- Jagirdari – Payment through Jagirs (land assignments).

Changes by Later Mughal Rulers

- Jahangir introduced the Du-Aspah Sih-Aspah System, allowing an increase in the Sawar rank without increasing the Zat rank.
- Shah Jahan introduced the Jama-Dami (Mahina Zaqir/Monthly Scale) System.
- Over time, the Jagirdari System contributed to the Jagirdari and Agrarian Crisis, which became one of the major causes of the decline of the Mughal Empire.

Mughal Revenue System

Methods of Revenue Collection

The Mughals followed several methods of land revenue assessment:

- Kankut – Assessment based on estimated crop yield.
- Rai – Assessment based on average yield per unit area.
- Zabti – Assessment based on actual crop productivity.

Dahsala Bandobast (Zabti System)

The Dahsala Bandobast, also known as the Zabti System, became the standard method of land revenue assessment.
Revenue was calculated on the basis of the average produce of the previous ten years.
The system was developed by Raja Todar Mal.

Jagirdari System

Under the Jagirdari System, land was assigned to Jagirdars in place of salary.
Whenever a Mansabdar could not be paid in cash, he was assigned a Jagir.

Revenue-free Land Grants

The Mughals granted tax-free lands under the following names:

- Madad-i-Maash
- Suyurghal
- Inam

These grants were generally given for religious, charitable, or scholarly purposes.

Mughal Culture

Architecture under Babur

Babur constructed two mosques:
- Kabuli Bagh Mosque at Panipat
- A mosque at Sambhal (Rohilkhand)

Architecture under Humayun

Humayun’s Tomb was built by his widow Haji Begum.
Humayun patronised two renowned Persian painters:
- Mir Syed Ali
- Abdus Samad

Architecture under Akbar

Panch Mahal at Fatehpur Sikri is a unique five-storeyed structure inspired by the plan of a Buddhist Vihara.
The Mariam’s Palace, Diwan-i-Aam, and Diwan-i-Khas at Fatehpur Sikri were built in the Indian architectural style.
Buland Darwaza, constructed to commemorate the conquest of Gujarat, forms the grand entrance to Fatehpur Sikri.
Akbar started the construction of his own tomb at Sikandra, which was completed by Jahangir.
The architecture of Fatehpur Sikri is popularly described as an “Epic in Red Sandstone.”

Architecture under Jahangir

Jahangir rebuilt Salim Chishti’s Tomb in pure white marble, making it the first Mughal monument built entirely of marble.
Palace of Birbal and Palace of Tansen are important buildings within the Fatehpur Sikri complex.
Nur Jahan built the magnificent Itimad-ud-Daulah’s Tomb (also known as Mirza Ghiyas Beg’s Tomb) at Agra.
This monument is famous for the first extensive use of Pietra Dura (Parchin Kari), a decorative inlay technique using semi-precious stones.
Jahangir encouraged the increased use of white marble instead of red sandstone and popularised the Pietra Dura style.
He also built the Moti Masjid at Lahore and his own mausoleum at Shahdara (Lahore).

Architecture under Shah Jahan

Mughal architecture reached its highest stage of development during Shah Jahan’s reign.
He built the world-famous Taj Mahal at Agra.
He also constructed the magnificent Jama Masjid at Delhi.
Other important structures built by Shah Jahan at Agra include:
- Moti Masjid (Marble Mosque)
- Khas Mahal
- Musamman Burj (Jasmine Palace), where he spent his final years in captivity.
In 1637 AD, Shah Jahan founded Shahjahanabad (Old Delhi).
He built the Red Fort and installed the famous Takht-i-Taus (Peacock Throne) there.

Architecture under Aurangzeb

The only major structure built by Aurangzeb inside the Red Fort was the Moti Masjid.
The monument most closely associated with Aurangzeb is Bibi-ka-Maqbara at Aurangabad, built as the tomb of his wife Rabia-ud-Daurani.
Aurangzeb also constructed the Badshahi Masjid at Lahore.

Mughal Painting

Painters of Akbar’s Court

Daswant and Basawan were the two most celebrated painters in Akbar’s court.

Painters of Jahangir’s Court

Abdul Hasan
Ustad Mansur
Bishandas
Jahangir proudly claimed that he could identify the work of each individual artist in a painting.

Titles Conferred by Mughal Rulers

Title	Person	Field	Conferred by
Jagat Guru	Harivijay Suri	Jain Religion	Akbar
Zari Kalam	Muhammad Husain	Literature	Akbar
Sirin Kalam	Abdus Samad	Painting	Akbar
Raj Kavi	Faizi	Literature	Akbar
Kavi Priya	Birbal	Literature	Akbar
Nadir-ul-Asra	Ustad Mansur	Painting	Jahangir
Nadir-uz-Zaman	Abdul Hasan	Painting	Jahangir
Guna Samudra	Lal Khan	Music	Shah Jahan
Raj Kavi	Kalim	Literature	Shah Jahan
Mahakaviraj	Sundardas	Literature	Shah Jahan

Literature of the Mughal Period

Book	Author	Contents / Historical Importance
Tuzuk-i-Baburi (Baburnama)	Babur	Describes Babur’s military tactics, administration and organisation of the Mughal Empire.
Qanuni-i-Humayun	Khwand Amir	Provides details of Humayun’s administration, festivals and public buildings.
Humayun Nama	Gulbadan Begum	Biography of Humayun written by his sister.
Akbar Nama	Abul Fazl	Official chronicle giving the history of Akbar’s reign.
Tabaqat-i-Akbari	Khwaja Nizamuddin Ahmad Bakhshi	Historical account of Akbar’s reign.
Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri	Jahangir	Autobiography and memoirs of Jahangir’s reign.
Iqbalnama-i-Jahangiri	Muhammad Khan	Describes the history of Jahangir’s reign.
Chahar Chaman	Chandra Bhan Brahman	Historical account of Shah Jahan’s reign.
Alamgir Nama	Munshi Mirza Muhammad Kazim	Covers the first ten years of Aurangzeb’s reign.
Maasir-i-Alamgiri	Saqi Mustaid Khan	Official history of Aurangzeb’s reign, compiled after his death.
Ain-i-Akbari	Abul Fazl	Comprehensive account of Akbar’s administration, institutions and empire.
Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh	Abdul Qadir Badauni	Critical historical account of Akbar’s reign.
Tarikh-i-Alfi	Mulla Daud	Historical chronicle covering Akbar’s period.
Nuriyya-i-Sultaniyya	Abdul Haq	Discusses the theory of kingship during the Mughal period.
Waqt-i-Hyderabad	Nimat Khan Ali	Describes Aurangzeb’s conquest of Golconda.
Futuhat-i-Alamgiri	Ishwar Das	Historical account of Aurangzeb’s reign.
Nuskha-i-Dilkusha	Bhimsen Saxena	Analytical study of Aurangzeb’s administration, policies and character.
Khulasat-ut-Tawarikh	Sujan Raj Khatri	History of Aurangzeb’s reign.
Padshah Nama	Abdul Hamid Lahori	Official history of Shah Jahan’s reign.
Padshah Nama	Muhammad Waris	Continuation of the history of Shah Jahan’s reign.
Shahjahan Nama	Muhammad Salih	Historical account of Shah Jahan’s reign.
Shahjahan Nama	Inayat Khan	Another important chronicle of Shah Jahan’s rule.
Hamla-i-Haidri	Muhammad Rafi Khan	Historical account of Aurangzeb’s reign.
Namah-i-Alamgiri	Aqil Khan Zafar	Describes the reign of Aurangzeb.
Sirr-i-Akbar	Dara Shikoh	Persian translation of the Upanishads.
Safinat-ul-Auliya	Dara Shikoh	Biographies of prominent Sufi saints.
Majma-ul-Bahrain	Dara Shikoh	Discusses the philosophical similarities between Hinduism and Islam.
Ruqaat-e-Alamgiri	Aurangzeb	Collection (compendium) of Aurangzeb’s letters.
Hasanat-ul-Arifin	Dara Shikoh	Compilation of religious and spiritual ideas.