The Sangam Period

The Sangam Period (1st–3rd Century AD) represents a formative era in South Indian history, marked by the rise of the Chera, Chola, and Pandya kingdoms. Renowned for flourishing trade, efficient administration, rich literary achievements, and diverse cultural traditions, this period laid the foundations of classical Tamil civilization.

The Cheras

Geographical Extent

• The Chera Kingdom covered territories in present-day Kerala and parts of Tamil Nadu.

Capital and Ports

• The capital was Vanji.
• The major ports were Muziris and Tondi, which played a significant role in overseas commerce.

Roman Connections

• The Romans established two regiments at Muziris (identified with Cranganore) and also constructed a Temple of Augustus there, indicating strong Indo-Roman relations.

Udiyangeral

• One of the earliest and best-known Chera rulers was Udiyangeral, who earned fame through the legendary claim that he fed both armies during the Mahabharata (Kurukshetra) War, thereby receiving the title Udiyangeral.

Senguttuvan (Red Chera)

• The greatest Chera king was Senguttuvan, also known as the Red Chera.
• Tradition states that he invaded North India and crossed the River Ganga.
• He is also credited with founding the Pattini Cult, dedicated to the worship of Kannagi, the goddess of chastity.

The Cholas

Location

• The Chola Kingdom, also known as Cholamandalam, was situated between the Pennar and Vellar Rivers, lying to the north-east of the Pandya Kingdom.
• It broadly corresponded to the modern districts of Thanjavur (Tanjore) and Tiruchirappalli.

Capital and Economy

• The inland capital was Uraiyur, an important centre of the cotton trade.
• One of the chief sources of Chola prosperity was trade in cotton textiles.
• Puhar (Kaveripattinam) functioned as the principal seaport and also served as an alternative capital.

Elara

• The earliest known Chola ruler was Elara, who conquered Sri Lanka and ruled the island for nearly fifty years.

Karikala

• The greatest Chola ruler was Karikala, popularly known as the “Man with the Charred Leg.”
• He founded the port city of Puhar (Kaveripattinam).
• He also constructed a 160-km-long embankment along the Kaveri River with the assistance of 12,000 Sri Lankan slaves.
• Karikala maintained a strong and efficient navy, contributing to Chola maritime power.

Decline

• The early Chola Kingdom eventually declined after attacks by the Pallavas from the north, leading to its temporary eclipse.

The Pandyas

Early References

• The Pandyas were first mentioned by Megasthenes, who described their kingdom as being famous for its pearls.
• The Pandya Kingdom is also referred to in both the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, indicating its antiquity.

Territorial Extent and Capital

• The Pandya territory comprised the modern districts of Tirunelveli, Ramanathapuram, and Madurai in present-day Tamil Nadu.
• Its capital was Madurai, strategically located on the banks of the Vaigai River.

Trade and Foreign Relations

• The Pandyas derived considerable wealth through trade with the Roman Empire.
• They are known to have sent diplomatic missions (embassies) to the Roman Emperors Augustus and Trajan.

Important Rulers

    Mudukudumi

• • The earliest known Pandya ruler was Mudukudumi.

    Nedunjeliyan

• • The greatest Pandya ruler was Nedunjeliyan.
  • According to tradition, he wrongly accused Kovalan of theft, leading to Kovalan’s execution.
  • In retaliation, Kannagi, the wife of Kovalan, cursed the city of Madurai, resulting in its destruction.

Sangam Administration

The King

• The King was the supreme authority and the centre of administration.
• He was known by several titles, including Ko, Mannam, Vendian, Konavan, and Iraivan.

Royal Court

• The Avai functioned as the court of the crowned monarch, assisting in governance and state affairs.

Important Officials (Panchamahasabha)

The administration was supported by the Panchamahasabha, consisting of:

1. 1. Amaichchar – Ministers
   2. Purohitar – Priests
   3. Dutar – Envoys (Messengers)
   4. Senapatiyar – Commanders
   5. Otrar – Spies

Administrative Divisions

The kingdom was divided into several territorial units:

• • Mandalam / Nadu – Province
  • Ur – Town
  • Perur – Large Village
  • Sirur – Small Village
  • Pattinam – Coastal Town
  • Puhar – Harbour Area
  • Cheri – Suburb of a Town

Revenue Administration

The major sources of revenue included:

• • Karai – Land Tax
  • Irai – Tribute paid by feudatories and war booty
  • Ulgu – Customs Duties
  • Iravu – Extra demand or forced levy

Village Administration

• Variyam served as the smallest unit of territorial administration and was headed by a Variyar (Tax Collector).

Agricultural Prosperity

• A famous saying about the Chola territory, irrigated by the Kaveri River, states that the area in which an elephant could lie down produced enough grain to feed seven persons, highlighting the exceptional fertility and advanced irrigation facilities of the region.

Sangam Literature

Meaning of Sangam

• The Sangam was an assembly of Tamil poets and scholars held under the patronage of the Pandya rulers at Madurai.
• According to tradition, the Sangam tradition lasted for 9,990 years and was attended by 8,598 poets and 197 Pandya kings.

The Three Sangams

    First Sangam

• • Held at Ten-Madurai (Old Madurai), which was later submerged by the sea.
  • Presided over by Agastya (Agattiyar).
  • It was attended by gods and legendary sages, but all its literary works have perished.
  • It reportedly enjoyed the patronage of 89 Pandya rulers.

    Second Sangam

• • Conducted at Kapatapuram (Alavai), another city believed to have been engulfed by the sea.
  • Initially chaired by Agastya, with Tolkappiyar later serving as chairman.
  • The only surviving work from this Sangam is Tolkappiyam, the earliest extant treatise on Tamil grammar, authored by Tolkappiyar.
  • It was patronized by 59 Pandya rulers.

    Third Sangam

• • Convened at North Madurai under the chairmanship of Nakkirar.
  • Most of its literature has survived.
  • It received the patronage of 49 Pandya rulers.
  • The important surviving collections include:
    
    • Ettutogai (Eight Anthologies)
    • Pattuppattu (Ten Idylls)
    • Patinenkilkanakku (Eighteen Didactic Works)

Classification of Sangam Literature

    Melkanakku (Major Works)

• • Ettutogai and Pattuppattu together constitute the Melkanakku
  • They comprise 18 major literary works and primarily narrative compositions.

    Kilakkanakku (Minor Works)

• • Patinenkilkanakku forms the Kilakkanakku, consisting of 18 minor didactic texts focusing on ethics and moral teachings.

    Tirukkural

• • The Kural (Muppal) is a part of the Patinenkilkanakku corpus.
  • It was composed by Tiruvalluvar.
  • Revered as the “Bible of Tamil Land,” it is a classic treatise dealing with polity, ethics, morality, and social conduct.

The Epics

Major Sangam Epics

The important literary epics of the Sangam Age include:

• • Silappadikaram
  • Manimekalai
  • Sivaga Sindamani (Jivaka Chintamani)

Silappadikaram (The Story of the Anklet)

• Silappadikaram, meaning “The Story of the Anklet,” was composed by Ilango Adigal.
• It narrates the tragic story of Kovalan and Madhavi of Kaveripattinam (Puhar).
• The work is popularly regarded as the “Iliad of Tamil Poetry” because of its literary excellence and heroic narrative.

Manimekalai

• Manimekalai was written by Sittalai Sattanar.
• It describes the adventures and spiritual journey of Manimekalai, the daughter of Kovalan and Madhavi.
• The work serves as a sequel to Silappadikaram and is strongly influenced by Buddhist philosophy.

Sivaga Sindamani (Jivaka Chintamani)

• Sivaga Sindamani (Jivaka Chintamani) was composed by the Jain scholar Tirutakkadevar.
• The epic is deeply influenced by Jainism and reflects its ethical and philosophical ideals.

Bharatam

• Bharatam was authored by Perundevanar.
• It represents the Tamil adaptation of the Mahabharata tradition.

Panch Tinai (Five Tamil Ecological Regions)

The Panch Tinai classified ancient Tamil society into five ecological zones, each associated with a distinct occupation and community.

1. Kurinji (Hilly / Mountain Region)

• Region: Hilly backwoods or mountainous areas
• Primary Occupation: Hunting and Gathering
• Principal Inhabitants: Kuravar and Vetar

2. Palai (Parched / Arid Region)

• Region: Dry and desert-like tracts
• Primary Occupation: Cattle Lifting and Highway Robbery
• Principal Inhabitants: Eyinar and Maravar

3. Mullai (Pastoral Region)

• Region: Pastoral and forest tracts
• Primary Occupation: Shifting Agriculture and Animal Husbandry
• Principal Inhabitants: Ayar and Idaiyar

4. Marutam (Wetland Region)

• Region: Fertile agricultural plains
• Primary Occupation: Plough Agriculture
• Principal Inhabitants: Ulavar and Vellalar

5. Neital (Littoral / Coastal Region)

• Region: Coastal and seashore areas
• Primary Occupation: Fishing and Salt Extraction
• Principal Inhabitants: Paratavar and Valaiyar