The Revolt of 1857

The Revolt of 1857 marked a major turning point in Indian history during the tenure of Governor-General Lord Canning.

Causes of the Revolt

Political Factors

• Nana Sahib was denied the pension of Peshwa Baji Rao II.
• Awadh (1856) was annexed citing maladministration.
• Satara, Jhansi, Nagpur and Sambalpur were annexed through the Doctrine of Lapse.

Economic Factors

• Heavy land revenue burden.
• Forced eviction of cultivators.
• Discriminatory tariff policy favouring British goods.
• Decline of traditional industries, causing distress among peasants and artisans.

Socio-Religious Factors

• British social reforms such as Sati Abolition (1829) and Widow Remarriage Act (1856) generated resentment among orthodox sections.

Military Factors

• Widespread discrimination against Indian soldiers in service conditions and promotions.

Immediate Trigger

• Introduction of Enfield Rifles.
• Belief that cartridges were coated with cow and pig fat, offending religious sentiments.

Beginning & Expansion of the Revolt

Barrackpore Incident (29 March 1857)

• Mangal Pandey, a soldier of the 34th Native Infantry, attacked British officers Hughes and Baugh.
• Fellow soldiers refused to arrest him.
• He was later captured, tried and executed.

Meerut Uprising (10 May 1857)

• Revolt erupted after punishment of 85 soldiers who declined to use the greased cartridges.
• Rebels freed imprisoned comrades, attacked Europeans, set buildings ablaze and marched towards Delhi.

Capture of Delhi

• The arrival of the Meerut troops encouraged the Delhi garrison.
• Rebels occupied Delhi.
• Bahadur Shah II (‘Zafar’) was proclaimed ‘Shahenshah-i-Hindustan’ (Emperor of India).

Major Centres of the Revolt of 1857

Spread of the Revolt

• Within a month of the capture of Delhi, the movement spread across North India, Central India and Western India.
• Punjab and Bengal witnessed only limited participation, while South India largely remained outside the movement.

Important Notes

Bahadur Shah II

• Exiled to Rangoon, where he died in 1862.
• Sons were executed.
• Wife Begum Hazrat Mahal survived.

Nana Sahib

• Escaped to Nepal.

Tantia Tope

• Original name: Ramachandra Pandurang.
• Captured through betrayal.
• Executed on 18 April 1859.

Kunwar Singh

• Sustained injuries during the campaign.
• Died on 26 April 1858.

Sir Hugh Rose

• Described Rani Lakshmi Bai as the bravest military leader among the rebels.

Prominent Leaders of the Revolt

• Khan Bahadur Khan (Bareilly)
• Maulavi Ahmadullah Shah (Faizabad)
• Azimullah Khan (Fatehpur)
• Devi Singh
• Maulvi Ahmad
• Lala Madho Singh (Meerut)

Restoration of British Authority

• British administration regained effective control over India by July–December 1858.

Causes of Failure of the Revolt of 1857

Limited Geographical Reach

• The uprising remained confined mainly to Northern and Central India.

Poor Coordination

• Lack of unity among sepoys, peasants, zamindars and regional leaders.

Restricted Leadership

• Many influential rulers, including the Scindia, Holkar and Nizam, stayed away.

Divergent Objectives

• Participants pursued different regional and personal interests, preventing unified action.

Significance of the Revolt of 1857

• Reflected a strong spirit of patriotism beyond communal divisions.
• Originated as a military mutiny, but gradually transformed into a broader anti-British movement.
• Considered the first large-scale challenge to British colonial rule in India.

Nature of the Revolt of 1857

I. Major Interpretations

Historians have broadly explained the Revolt of 1857 through two principal viewpoints.

1. Sepoy Mutiny View

According to this school, the uprising was primarily a military rebellion initiated by Indian sepoys.

Supporters

• • Syed Ahmad Khan
  • Munshi Jeevan Lal
  • Durgadas Bandyopadhyay (Contemporary Historian)
  • Sir John Seeley
  • John Lawrence
  • John Kaye
  • G.B. Malleson
  • R.C. Mazumdar

2. National Struggle View

This interpretation considers the revolt as an early organised resistance against British rule.

Supporters

• • V.D. Savarkar
  • Karl Marx
  • V.K. Rajwade
  • K.M. Panikkar
  • Ishwari Prasad
  • A.L. Shrivastava
  • Tara Chand

II. Other Historical Interpretations

Different scholars have described the movement using varied perspectives:

• • Racial Struggle
  • Black–White Conflict
  • Medieval Revival
  • Religious Struggle
  • Hindu–Muslim–Christian Conflict
  • Civilisation vs Barbarism
  • English–Indian Conflict
  • Hindu–Muslim Alliance against Christianity

Important Books on 1857

Select Opinions on 1857 Revolt

John Seeley

• Regarded the revolt as a self-centred military mutiny, lacking popular backing and indigenous leadership.

R.C. Mazumdar

• Argued that it was neither the First, nor a National, nor a War of Independence.

Benjamin Disraeli

• Described the uprising as not accidental, but rooted in deep public dissatisfaction.

V.D. Savarkar

• Declared the revolt as India’s First War of Independence.

S.N. Sen

• Observed that the movement began with religious concerns but gradually evolved into a struggle for independence.

Impact of the Revolt of 1857

I. Political Changes

• The Government of India Act, 1858 abolished the rule of the East India Company.
• Governance of India shifted directly to the British Crown.
• The office of Secretary of State for India was established with assistance from the Council of India.
• The Governor-General simultaneously assumed the title of Viceroy, representing the British Monarch.

II. Imperial Policy

• British authorities abandoned aggressive territorial annexation.
• The Doctrine of Lapse was effectively discontinued.
• Greater emphasis was placed on safeguarding Princely States.

III. Administrative & Military Reforms

• The policy of “Divide and Rule” gained prominence.
• Extensive administrative restructuring followed.
• The proportion of European troops in the army was increased.

IV. Economic Consequences

• The enormous cost of suppression was transferred to the Indian population through financial measures.

V. Historical Significance

• Although unsuccessful, the revolt became a symbol of resistance against British imperialism.
• It inspired the growth of Indian nationalism and later freedom movements.
• The movement remained a lasting source of inspiration in India’s struggle for independence.