ROLE OF WOMEN AND WOMEN’S ORGANISATION

ROLE OF WOMEN AND WOMEN’S ORGANISATION

“Feminism is not about making women stronger. Women are already strong; it is about changing the way the world perceives that strength.” — G.D. Anderson

INTRODUCTION

Women constitute nearly half of India’s population and perform indispensable roles in the family, economy, agriculture, education, politics, administration and community life. However, their contribution has historically remained under-recognised because Indian society has largely been organised around patriarchal norms, under which men enjoy greater control over property, decision-making, mobility and public institutions.

The position of women in India cannot be described merely as a story of uninterrupted decline or continuous progress. It is better understood through the interaction of:

• Patriarchy and social reform
• Tradition and modernity
• Legal equality and social inequality
• Economic contribution and unpaid care work
• Political representation and actual decision-making power
• Individual rights and community control

Women’s status has improved considerably through education, constitutional rights, social reform movements, women’s organisations, economic participation and democratic representation. Yet women continue to face discrimination in the form of violence, unequal wages, low asset ownership, unpaid care burden, limited political representation and restrictions on autonomy. The original text similarly describes women’s history as marked by subordination under patriarchy, followed by reform efforts through modern education and legislation.

Current Position of Women in India

India has made significant progress in educational and health-related dimensions of gender equality, but major gaps continue in economic participation and political empowerment.

According to thelatest  Global Gender Gap Report , India ranked 131st out of 148 economies, with an overall gender-parity score of 64.4%. India performed relatively better in education and health, but its economic-participation score remained only 40.7%. Female representation in Parliament was recorded at 13.8%, while the proportion of women in ministerial positions was around 5.6%.

This shows that women may have achieved greater access to schooling and formal rights, but equal access has not yet translated into proportional control over:

• • Income
  • Property
  • Employment
  • Political power
  • Leadership positions
  • Public decision-making

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Women’s empowerment refers to the process through which women acquire the ability, resources, confidence and institutional support required to make independent choices and exercise control over their lives.

Empowerment involves more than providing welfare benefits. It requires women to gain:

• • Agency – ability to make decisions
  • Access – availability of education, health, employment and credit
  • Ownership – control over property and productive resources
  • Representation – participation in political and administrative institutions
  • Autonomy – freedom over marriage, mobility, reproduction and employment
  • Dignity – protection from discrimination, violence and humiliation

Women’s Welfare, Development and Empowerment

Thus, the shift in public policy has been from “development for women” to “development with women” and finally to “women-led development.”

EVOLUTION OF THE STATUS OF WOMEN IN INDIA

1. Women in the Early Vedic Period

Women are generally believed to have enjoyed a comparatively respectable position during the early Vedic period.

They had greater access to:

• Education
• Religious rituals
• Intellectual discussions
• Marriage choice in certain sections
• Social participation

Women such as Gargi, Maitreyi, Lopamudra, Apala and Ghosha are referred to in Vedic and philosophical traditions as scholars and intellectual participants.

However, this position should not be romanticised as complete gender equality. Social privileges varied according to class, community and family background.

2. Later Vedic Period

During the later Vedic period, women’s position became increasingly restricted.

Major changes included:

• Decline in access to Vedic education
• Growth of patriarchal control
• Reduced role in public decision-making
• Greater importance of son preference
• Restrictions on inheritance
• Consolidation of early marriage and domestic roles

Women retained limited rights over stridhana, or personal property received at marriage or through gifts, but control over family property remained mainly with men.

The source records that women’s access to political participation, education and property became more restricted during the later Vedic period, although elite women such as Gargi and Maitreyi remained notable exceptions.

3. Buddhist and Jain Period

Buddhism and Jainism opened certain religious and intellectual spaces for women.

Important developments included:

• • Admission of women into monastic orders
  • Formation of the Bhikshuni Sangha
  • Emphasis on individual spiritual capacity
  • Participation of women in religious teaching and charitable activities

Nevertheless, monastic institutions also operated within broader patriarchal societies and did not completely eliminate gender inequality.

4. Medieval Period

The position of women varied considerably across regions, classes and communities during the medieval period.

Some restrictive practices became more prominent, including:

• • Child marriage
  • Purdah
  • Female infanticide
  • Jauhar and sati in particular social contexts
  • Restrictions on education and mobility

At the same time, women exercised agency in politics, religion and culture. Examples include:

• Razia Sultan
• Rani Durgavati
• Ahilyabai Holkar
• Chand Bibi
• Mirabai
• Lal Ded
• Akka Mahadevi

The Bhakti and Sufi movements challenged ritual hierarchy and allowed women to express religious devotion beyond rigid institutional restrictions. The source similarly notes that Bhakti and Sufi traditions helped create space for criticism of women’s suppression.

5. Colonial Period and Social Reform

The colonial period produced contradictory effects.

British rule introduced modern education, print culture and legal reform, but colonial institutions also reinforced certain patriarchal interpretations of personal laws.

Indian social reformers played an important role in challenging oppressive practices.

Major Reformers and Contributions

Important Colonial-Era Laws

• Bengal Sati Regulation, 1829
• Hindu Widows’ Remarriage Act, 1856
• Female Infanticide Prevention Act, 1870
• Age of Consent Act, 1891
• Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929

The source identifies social reform, modern education and legislation as major instruments through which the status of women began to improve during colonial rule.

6. Women in the National Movement

The national movement brought women into the public sphere on an unprecedented scale.

Women participated in:

• Swadeshi Movement
• Non-Cooperation Movement
• Civil Disobedience Movement
• Quit India Movement
• Revolutionary activities
• Peasant and labour movements

Prominent participants included:

• • Sarojini Naidu
  • Kasturba Gandhi
  • Aruna Asaf Ali
  • Sucheta Kripalani
  • Usha Mehta
  • Kamala Nehru
  • Matangini Hazra
  • Captain Lakshmi Sahgal

The movement challenged the belief that politics belonged exclusively to men. However, women were often mobilised through ideals of sacrifice, motherhood and service rather than full equality.

7. Post-Independence Period

After Independence, women received equal citizenship and universal adult franchise from the beginning.

The Constitution:

• Guaranteed equality
• Prohibited sex-based discrimination
• Permitted affirmative action
• Provided equal opportunity
• Directed the state to ensure equal livelihood and maternity protection

The post-independence period also witnessed:

• • Expansion of women’s education
  • Entry into professional occupations
  • Political reservation at the local level
  • Growth of autonomous women’s movements
  • Legal reform in marriage, inheritance and employment
  • Increasing assertion of reproductive and bodily autonomy

Yet social transformation has remained slower than legal reform.

CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS FOR WOMEN

Fundamental Rights

   Article 14 – Equality before Law

Women are entitled to equal protection of laws and equal treatment by state institutions.

   Article 15(1) – Prohibition of Discrimination

The state cannot discriminate against citizens solely on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth.

   Article 15(3) – Special Provisions

The state may make special provisions for women and children.

This provision permits:

• • • Reservation
    • Maternity benefits
    • Protective measures
    • Women-specific welfare programmes

It recognises that treating unequals identically may perpetuate inequality.

   Article 16 – Equality in Public Employment

Women are entitled to equality of opportunity in government employment.

   Article 19

Women enjoy freedoms of:

• • • Speech and expression
    • Movement
    • Association
    • Profession and occupation

   Article 21 – Life and Personal Liberty

Judicial interpretation has expanded Article 21 to include:

• • • Dignity
    • Privacy
    • Reproductive choice
    • Bodily autonomy
    • Safe working conditions
    • Protection from violence

   Article 21A

Provides free and compulsory education to children between 6 and 14 years, which is important for girls’ education.

   Article 23

Prohibits trafficking and forced labour.

Directive Principles of State Policy

   Article 39(a)

Men and women should have an equal right to adequate means of livelihood.

   Article 39(d)

Equal pay for equal work for men and women.

   Article 39(e)

The health and strength of workers should not be abused.

   Article 39A

Equal justice and free legal aid.

   Article 42

The state should provide just and humane conditions of work and maternity relief.

   Article 45

Early childhood care and education.

   Article 47

Improvement of nutrition, public health and standard of living.

Fundamental Duty

Article 51A(e)

Every citizen must renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women.

Political Representation

• • Article 243D provides not less than one-third reservation for women in Panchayats.
  • Article 243T provides corresponding reservation in urban local bodies.

The constitutional framework and related safeguards listed in the source demonstrate that women’s equality is supported through Fundamental Rights, Directive Principles and positive discrimination.

IMPORTANT LEGISLATIVE SAFEGUARDS

The source discusses several of these legal safeguards, particularly the laws dealing with dowry, domestic violence, trafficking, sati and workplace harassment.

WOMEN’S ORGANISATIONS IN INDIA

A women’s organisation is a collective body formed to improve women’s:

• Social status
• Legal rights
• Education
• Economic security
• Political participation
• Protection from violence

Women’s organisations differ from general welfare bodies because they seek to transform the structures responsible for women’s subordination.

Importance of Women’s Organisations

They perform several roles:

1. Awareness Creation

They educate women regarding:

• • Legal rights
  • Health
  • Political participation
  • Domestic violence
  • Property rights
  • Employment opportunities

2. Collective Bargaining

Individually, poor and marginalised women often lack bargaining power. Collective organisation helps them negotiate with:

• • Employers
  • Government authorities
  • Banks
  • Contractors
  • Local elites

3. Legal and Institutional Reform

Women’s organisations have influenced laws relating to:

• • Dowry
  • Rape
  • Domestic violence
  • Workplace harassment
  • Property rights
  • Political reservation

4. Economic Empowerment

They organise women into:

• • Trade unions
  • Self-help groups
  • Cooperatives
  • Producer collectives
  • Microcredit groups

5. Political Mobilisation

They bring women’s issues into:

• • Elections
  • Public policy
  • Local governance
  • Protest movements
  • Legislative debates

6. Social Support

They provide:

• • Shelter
  • Legal counselling
  • Rehabilitation
  • Mental-health support
  • Training and employment assistance

EARLY WOMEN’S ORGANISATIONS

1. Women’s Indian Association – 1917

The Women’s Indian Association was founded at Adyar, Madras, by women including Annie Besant, Margaret Cousins and Dorothy Jinarajadasa.

Its major objectives included:

• Women’s suffrage
• Female education
• Social reform
• Representation in legislatures
• Improvement in health and welfare

It helped place women’s political citizenship on the national agenda.

2. National Council of Women in India – 1925

It was linked to the International Council of Women and provided an organised platform for elite women to participate in national and international discussions.

Its limitations included:

• • Urban and elite character
  • Limited connection with poor rural women
  • Moderate reformist orientation

3. All India Women’s Conference – 1927

The AIWC initially concentrated on women’s education and later expanded into:

• Legal reform
• Child welfare
• Marriage reform
• Property rights
• Political representation

The source records the role of the Women’s Indian Association, National Council of Women in India and AIWC in advancing women’s education, suffrage and public representation.

POST-INDEPENDENCE WOMEN’S MOVEMENTS

Women’s movements after Independence became more diverse and issue-based.

They addressed:

• Dowry deaths
• Sexual violence
• Alcohol abuse
• Land rights
• Environmental destruction
• Labour exploitation
• Political participation
• State violence
• Personal laws
• Reproductive rights

1. Telangana Peasant Movement

Women participated in the Telangana struggle against:

• Feudal oppression
• Forced labour
• Landlord violence
• Economic exploitation

Their participation showed that women’s issues cannot be separated from class and agrarian relations.

2. Anti-Dowry Movement

During the late 1970s and 1980s, women’s organisations mobilised against dowry deaths and cruelty within marriage.

The movement:

• Publicised cases of bride-burning
• Organised protests and street theatre
• Demanded stricter laws
• Challenged the treatment of domestic violence as a private matter

Organisations such as the Dahej Virodhi Chetna Manch played an important role.

3.  Anti-Rape Movement

The custodial rape of a young tribal girl in the Mathura case generated widespread protest.

The movement argued that:

• Consent cannot be understood through patriarchal assumptions
• Custodial authority affects women’s ability to resist
• A woman’s past sexual history should not determine credibility

This movement contributed to changes in rape law in the 1980s.

4. Chipko Movement

Women in Himalayan villages played a central role in protecting forests from commercial felling.

Their participation was linked to dependence on forests for:

• Fuel
• Fodder
• Water
• Food
• Household livelihoods

The movement demonstrated the connection between gender, ecology and subsistence economy. The source highlights women’s defence of natural resources and their dependence on forests for essential needs.

5. Narmada Bachao Andolan

Women actively participated in protests against displacement caused by large dams.

The movement raised questions relating to:

• • Rehabilitation
  • Land rights
  • Tribal displacement
  • Environmental justice
  • Gendered effects of development

Women frequently suffer disproportionately from displacement because land titles and compensation are usually recorded in men’s names.

6. Anti-Liquor Movements

Rural women in several states mobilised against liquor shops because alcoholism was associated with:

• Domestic violence
• Loss of family income
• Debt
• Health problems
• Household insecurity

7. Contemporary Movements

Women have played important roles in:

• Anti-CAA protests
• Farmers’ movements
• Movements against AFSPA
• Campaigns against sexual violence
• Digital movements such as #MeToo

The source discusses women’s participation in contemporary citizenship movements and highlights how women claimed public political space traditionally considered masculine.

IMPORTANT POST-INDEPENDENCE WOMEN’S ORGANISATIONS

1. Self-Employed Women’s Association — SEWA

SEWA was established in 1972 under the leadership of Ela Bhatt.

It organises poor self-employed women such as:

• • Street vendors
  • Home-based workers
  • Agricultural labourers
  • Artisans
  • Domestic workers

SEWA combines the functions of a:

• • Trade union
  • Cooperative movement
  • Microfinance network
  • Social-security institution

Its approach recognises that informal workers require both employment security and social security.

2. All India Democratic Women’s Association — AIDWA

AIDWA works on issues such as:

• Food security
• Violence against women
• Employment
• Communalism
• Political participation
• Rights of poor women

3. Indian Association for Women’s Studies

It brings together academics, researchers and activists to promote:

• Women’s studies
• Feminist research
• Policy debate
• Gender-sensitive education

4. Bharatiya Grameen Mahila Sangh

It works primarily with rural women through:

• Training
• Community development
• Livelihood support
• Social awareness

5. Annapurna Mahila Mandal

It developed as an organisation of poor self-employed urban women and provided:

• Credit
• Employment support
• Food-related enterprises
• Collective security

These organisations are classified in the source into social, political and economic groups, with SEWA highlighted as a pioneering trade union of informal women workers.

LIMITATIONS OF WOMEN’S MOVEMENTS

Women’s movements have achieved major reforms, but they have also faced criticism.

1. Urban and Middle-Class Bias

Many organisations historically focused on issues of educated urban women and paid insufficient attention to:

• Dalit women
• Tribal women
• Agricultural labourers
• Domestic workers
• Minority women
• Women with disabilities

2. Fragmentation

Women’s movements are divided by:

• Political ideology
• Class
• Caste
• Religion
• Region
• Organisational affiliation

3. Limited Rural Reach

Awareness and organisational networks remain weak in remote rural areas.

4. Dependence on Funding

Some NGOs become dependent on government or foreign funding, affecting autonomy and long-term continuity.

5. Representation Problem

Leadership positions may be dominated by privileged women who cannot fully represent the experiences of marginalised groups.

6. Absence of Intersectional Approach

Women do not experience discrimination uniformly.

A Dalit woman may simultaneously face:

• • Patriarchy
  • Caste discrimination
  • Poverty
  • Occupational exploitation

Therefore, women’s movements must adopt an intersectional approach.

WOMEN AND EDUCATION

Importance of Women’s Education

Education is not merely a welfare measure. It expands women’s capabilities, autonomy and bargaining power.

1. Improves Health

Educated women are more likely to:

• Seek institutional healthcare
• Understand nutrition
• Use contraception
• Ensure immunisation
• Adopt menstrual hygiene practices

2. Reduces Infant and Maternal Mortality

Female education improves health decisions relating to:

• Pregnancy
• Childbirth
• Nutrition
• Immunisation
• Birth spacing

3. Delays Marriage and Childbirth

Education increases the age of marriage and reduces early pregnancy.

4. Promotes Economic Independence

Education provides access to:

• Skilled employment
• Entrepreneurship
• Formal-sector jobs
• Financial literacy

5. Improves Intergenerational Outcomes

Educated mothers are more likely to educate both daughters and sons.

6. Strengthens Political Participation

Education improves awareness of:

• Voting rights
• Public schemes
• Local governance
• Legal remedies

The source treats women’s education as an instrument of health improvement, poverty reduction, gender equality and inclusive development.

Barriers to Female Education

• Son preference
• Child marriage
• Domestic responsibilities
• Distance from schools
• Lack of safe transport
• Inadequate toilets
• Menstrual stigma
• Poverty
• Digital divide
• Shortage of female teachers
• Fear of sexual harassment
• Gender stereotyping in STEM

Major Initiatives

• Beti Bachao Beti Padhao
• Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya
• Sukanya Samriddhi Yojana
• Vigyan Jyoti
• GATI
• SERB-POWER
• Women in Engineering, Science and Technology
• Gender Inclusion Fund under NEP 2020

The source lists several programmes intended to improve women’s education and participation in STEM.

VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN

Violence against women is not merely an individual criminal act. It is rooted in unequal power relations and patriarchal control.

It may occur in:

• • Family
  • Workplace
  • Public spaces
  • Educational institutions
  • Political organisations
  • Digital platforms

Forms of Violence

• Domestic violence
• Dowry harassment
• Sexual assault
• Marital sexual violence
• Honour crimes
• Trafficking
• Acid attacks
• Workplace harassment
• Cyberstalking
• Female foeticide
• Child marriage

Causes

Patriarchal Ownership

Women’s bodies, labour and sexuality are often treated as being under family or male control.

Economic Dependence

Financial dependence makes it difficult for women to leave abusive relationships.

Social Stigma

Victims may be blamed, isolated or pressured to preserve family honour.

Weak Implementation

Laws may remain ineffective because of:

• • Police insensitivity
  • Delayed trials
  • Poor evidence collection
  • Social pressure
  • Low awareness

Normalisation

Violence within marriage is often treated as a private family matter.

DOMESTIC VIOLENCE

Domestic violence includes:

• • Physical abuse
  • Sexual abuse
  • Emotional abuse
  • Verbal abuse
  • Economic abuse

The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005 is primarily a civil law intended to provide immediate relief through:

• Protection orders
• Residence orders
• Monetary relief
• Custody orders
• Compensation
• Access to Protection Officers

The source explains that domestic violence arises from patriarchal control and lack of awareness, and discusses the role of criminal law and the Domestic Violence Act.

Support Mechanisms

• One Stop Centres
• Women Helpline
• Legal Services Authorities
• Shelter homes
• Police assistance
• Medical and psychological support

MARITAL RAPE

Marital rape refers to non-consensual sexual intercourse by a spouse.

Core Issue

Marriage cannot be treated as permanent and irrevocable consent.

The debate involves:

• • Bodily autonomy
  • Privacy
  • Dignity
  • Equality
  • Protection of marriage
  • Evidentiary concerns

The Supreme Court has recognised the importance of marital status in questions of reproductive autonomy and has held that forced sexual intercourse within marriage may be recognised as rape for certain statutory purposes, including access to abortion. The source refers to these developments in relation to the Medical Termination of Pregnancy framework.

Arguments for Criminalisation

• Consent is necessary in every sexual relationship.
• Marriage cannot extinguish bodily autonomy.
• The exception violates Articles 14 and 21.
• Existing laws do not adequately recognise sexual violence within marriage.

Concerns Raised

• Possibility of misuse
• Evidentiary difficulties
• Impact on matrimonial litigation
• Need for procedural safeguards

The solution should not be denial of the offence, but carefully designed law with appropriate evidentiary and procedural safeguards.

CYBERCRIME AGAINST WOMEN

Women face gender-specific online offences such as:

• Cyberstalking
• Image morphing
• Non-consensual circulation of intimate images
• Online threats
• Impersonation
• Doxxing
• Sextortion
• Deepfake pornography
• Trolling and sexual abuse

Impact

Cyber violence may cause:

• Mental trauma
• Withdrawal from public debate
• Loss of employment
• Social stigma
• Physical safety risks

Government Mechanisms

• Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre
• National Cyber Crime Reporting Portal
• Cyber Crime Prevention against Women and Children Scheme
• Cyber forensic laboratories
• Police cyber cells

The source describes how digital platforms may be used for stalking, blackmail, threats, photo morphing and exploitation.

FEMALE FOETICIDE AND SON PREFERENCE

• Female foeticide: Sex-selective abortion of a female foetus.
• Female infanticide: Killing a girl after birth.

Causes

• Son preference
• Dowry
• Patrilineal inheritance
• Old-age dependence on sons
• Belief that sons perform religious duties
• Perception of daughters as an economic burden
• Easy access to technology

Consequences

• Adverse sex ratio
• Trafficking and forced marriage
• Increased violence against women
• Demographic imbalance
• Reinforcement of women’s inferior status

Government Measures

• PCPNDT Act
• Beti Bachao Beti Padhao
• Sukanya Samriddhi Yojana
• Awareness campaigns
• Monitoring of diagnostic centres

The source distinguishes female foeticide from female infanticide and identifies son preference and misuse of prenatal technology as key issues.

SEXUAL HARASSMENT AT THE WORKPLACE

Vishaka Guidelines

In Vishaka v. State of Rajasthan, 1997, the Supreme Court laid down guidelines to protect women from workplace sexual harassment.

Sexual harassment includes:

• • Unwelcome physical contact
  • Demand for sexual favours
  • Sexually coloured remarks
  • Showing pornography
  • Other unwelcome sexual conduct

The guidelines required employers to establish complaint-redressal mechanisms. The source outlines these elements and the employer’s responsibility to create appropriate redressal procedures.

POSH Act, 2013

The Act requires:

• Internal Committee in establishments with ten or more workers
• Local Committee at district level for smaller and unorganised workplaces
• Time-bound inquiry
• Confidentiality
• Employer responsibility for prevention and awareness

Challenges

• Failure to constitute committees
• Lack of trained members
• Retaliation against complainants
• Exclusion of informal workers
• Poor awareness
• Pressure for informal settlement

WOMEN AND POLITICAL PARTICIPATION

Political empowerment refers not merely to voting but to women’s ability to:

• Contest elections
• Hold office
• Shape public policy
• Control party organisations
• Participate in decision-making

Why Women’s Political Participation Matters

1. Democratic Justice

Women constitute nearly half the population and must have proportional voice in public institutions.

2. Better Policy Priorities

Women representatives often give greater attention to:

• • Drinking water
  • Sanitation
  • Health
  • Education
  • Childcare
  • Violence
  • Food security

3. Role-Model Effect

Women leaders change social perceptions and encourage other women to enter public life.

4. Substantive Representation

Women can bring lived experiences that may otherwise remain absent from policy.

WOMEN IN PANCHAYATI RAJ INSTITUTIONS

The 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments provided at least one-third reservation for women in rural and urban local bodies.

Many states have increased this reservation to 50%.

Achievements

• • Large-scale entry of women into public office
  • Greater focus on public goods
  • Increased confidence and political awareness
  • Weakening of the idea that leadership is exclusively male
  • Political participation of Dalit and tribal women

Research cited in the source notes that women-led Panchayats often invest more in drinking water and other public services prioritised by women.

Challenges

Sarpanch-Pati Phenomenon

Husbands or male relatives may exercise actual authority on behalf of elected women.

Social Barriers

• Purdah
• Illiteracy
• Mobility restrictions
• Caste discrimination
• Violence and intimidation

Institutional Barriers

• Lack of training
• Limited financial powers
• Bureaucratic dominance
• Short tenure and rotation
• Poor digital literacy

The source highlights patriarchal restrictions, weak economic independence and proxy representation as major barriers to effective women’s leadership in Panchayats.

RESERVATION FOR WOMEN IN PARLIAMENT AND STATE LEGISLATURES

The Constitution (106th Amendment) Act, 2023, popularly associated with the Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam, provides for reservation of one-third of seats for women in:

• Lok Sabha
• State Legislative Assemblies
• Legislative Assembly of the National Capital Territory of Delhi

The reservation includes one-third of seats reserved for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.

Its operationalisation is linked to delimitation following the first census conducted after the commencement of the amendment. Therefore, although enacted, the reservation has not yet been implemented in current elections.

Significance

• Corrects structural underrepresentation
• Encourages party recruitment of women
• Creates role models
• Improves legislative diversity
• Strengthens substantive democracy

Concerns

• Delay due to census and delimitation
• Rotation of constituencies
• Absence of separate OBC quota
• Possibility of elite capture
• Need for inner-party democracy

WOMEN AND THE INDIAN ECONOMY

Women contribute to the economy through:

• • Paid employment
  • Agriculture
  • Informal work
  • Home-based production
  • Family enterprises
  • Unpaid care work

However, much of their contribution remains invisible in conventional economic statistics.

Major Economic Challenges

1. Low Labour-Force Participation

Women may leave or avoid employment because of:

• Household responsibilities
• Lack of suitable jobs
• Safety concerns
• Social stigma
• Marriage and childbirth
• Poor transport
• Low wages

2. Unpaid Care Work

Women disproportionately perform:

• Cooking
• Cleaning
• Childcare
• Elderly care
• Collection of water and fuel

This work supports the economy but is rarely recognised or compensated.

3. Gender Wage Gap

Women often receive lower wages because of:

• Occupational segregation
• Informal employment
• Career interruptions
• Discrimination
• Weak bargaining power

4. Glass Ceiling

Invisible organisational barriers prevent women from reaching senior leadership positions.

5. Informalisation

Many women work without:

• Written contracts
• Social security
• Maternity benefits
• Minimum wages
• Workplace protection

The source identifies financial exclusion, unpaid work, low labour participation, the gender wage gap and the glass ceiling as major economic barriers.

Measures Required

• Affordable childcare
• Safe public transport
• Flexible but secure work
• Equal pay enforcement
• Maternity and paternity leave
• Recognition of unpaid care
• Property and inheritance rights
• Credit and market access
• Skill development
• Social security for informal workers

WOMEN IN AGRICULTURE

Women perform important agricultural activities such as:

• Sowing
• Transplanting
• Weeding
• Harvesting
• Livestock care
• Seed preservation
• Post-harvest processing

Yet women are frequently treated as labourers rather than farmers.

Major Problems

Lack of Land Titles

Without land ownership, women face difficulty obtaining:

• • Institutional credit
  • Crop insurance
  • Compensation
  • Agricultural subsidies
  • Membership in cooperatives

Technology Gap

Mechanisation may displace women unless they receive training and access to equipment.

Extension Gap

Agricultural training and extension services are often directed towards male landowners.

Wage Discrimination

Women agricultural labourers are frequently paid less.

The source records that women form a major proportion of cultivators and agricultural labourers, while only a small share of operational holdings are controlled by women.

Government Initiatives

• Mahila Kisan Sashaktikaran Pariyojana
• Women-oriented components in agricultural missions
• Self-help groups
• Farmer Producer Organisations
• ICAR-Central Institute for Women in Agriculture

NATIONAL POLICY FOR EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN, 2001

The policy aimed to create an environment in which women could:

• • Realise their full potential
  • Participate equally in decision-making
  • Access education, healthcare and employment
  • Receive equal remuneration
  • Enjoy legal protection
  • Live free from violence and discrimination

It emphasised:

• • Gender-sensitive legal systems
  • Social and economic empowerment
  • Equal access to resources
  • Participation of men in changing patriarchal attitudes

These objectives are summarised in the source as equal access, inclusive decision-making, gender-sensitive law and eradication of discrimination.

DRAFT NATIONAL POLICY FOR WOMEN, 2016

The draft proposed a broader life-cycle approach covering:

• Health and nutrition
• Education
• Economy
• Governance
• Violence
• Infrastructure
• Climate change
• Social security

Its importance lay in recognising that women’s empowerment requires gender sensitivity across all policy sectors, including sectors often considered gender-neutral, such as:

• • Transport
  • Housing
  • Energy
  • Urban planning
  • Digital infrastructure

The source provides the policy’s sector-wise emphasis on reproductive rights, schooling, land ownership, employment, governance and climate-related displacement.

FIVE-YEAR PLANS AND CHANGING APPROACH

First to Fifth Plans: Welfare Approach

Women were primarily treated as mothers, wives and beneficiaries of welfare.

Focus areas included:

• Maternal welfare
• Nutrition
• Community development
• Mahila Mandals
• Protective labour measures

Sixth and Seventh Plans: Development Approach

Women began to be recognised as workers and contributors to development.

Focus shifted to:

• Education
• Employment
• Skill development
• Economic independence

Eighth Plan: Empowerment Approach

Women were recognised as equal partners in development.

Political reservation in local bodies became an important instrument.

Ninth Plan: Women’s Component Plan

The plan aimed to ensure that a specified share of development resources reached women.

Tenth and Eleventh Plans: Gender Budgeting

Gender concerns were extended beyond women-specific departments to areas such as:

• Transport
• Energy
• Infrastructure
• Telecommunications

Twelfth Plan: Substantive Equality

The focus moved towards disadvantaged women, including:

• Dalit women
• Tribal women
• Single women
• Women with disabilities

The source traces this transition from welfare to development, empowerment, gender budgeting and substantive inclusion.

EMERGING ISSUES

1. Menstrual Leave

Arguments in Favour

• Recognises menstrual health
• Supports women with severe pain
• Creates humane workplaces
• Reduces stigma

Concerns

• May reinforce stereotypes of women as less productive
• Could create hiring discrimination
• Menstrual experiences differ
• Universal leave may not suit all workplaces

A balanced approach may include:

• Flexible leave
• Work-from-home options
• Menstrual health facilities
• Medical accommodation

2. Property and Inheritance

Formal legal equality has improved, especially through the Hindu Succession Amendment.

However, women may still surrender property rights because of:

• Family pressure
• Fear of damaging relationships
• Lack of legal awareness
• Social expectation that dowry substitutes inheritance

The distinction between formal ownership and effective control is crucial.

3. Surrogacy and Reproductive Autonomy

Surrogacy raises questions regarding:

• Exploitation
• Consent
• Commercialisation
• Reproductive freedom
• Rights of the child
• Rights of single and LGBTQ+ persons

The source notes concerns that restrictive eligibility criteria may conflict with equality, privacy and reproductive autonomy.

4. Women in the Armed Forces

Judicial decisions and policy changes have expanded women’s eligibility for:

• Permanent Commission
• Command roles
• Military training
• Wider occupational branches

Women’s inclusion promotes:

• Equality
• Institutional diversity
• Better talent utilisation
• Breaking of stereotypes

The source discusses the Supreme Court’s role in granting permanent commissions and the broader equality implications of women’s inclusion in military command.

MAJOR CHALLENGES TO WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT

Social Challenges

• Patriarchy
• Son preference
• Child marriage
• Dowry
• Restrictions on mobility
• Gender stereotyping

Economic Challenges

• Low labour participation
• Wage gap
• Informal employment
• Lack of assets
• Unpaid care work
• Poor access to credit

Political Challenges

• Low representation
• Proxy leadership
• Weak inner-party democracy
• Violence against women candidates

Educational Challenges

• Dropout
• Digital divide
• Gendered subject choice
• Safety and transport barriers

Health Challenges

• Malnutrition
• Maternal mortality
• Anaemia
• Poor reproductive healthcare
• Mental-health burden

Legal Challenges

• Under-reporting
• Delayed justice
• Weak implementation
• Victim blaming
• Low legal awareness

Intersectional Challenges

Women’s experiences differ based on:

• Caste
• Tribe
• Class
• Religion
• Disability
• Region
• Sexual orientation
• Marital status

WAY FORWARD

1. Move from Protection to Agency

Women should not be treated only as vulnerable beneficiaries. Policies must recognise them as:

• Workers
• Farmers
• Entrepreneurs
• Leaders
• Rights-bearing citizens

2. Strengthen Education and Skills

• Prevent dropout
• Improve digital access
• Encourage STEM education
• Provide market-linked skills
• Expand safe hostels and transport

3. Recognise the Care Economy

• Public childcare centres
• Elderly-care services
• Paid parental leave
• Paternity leave
• Time-use surveys
• Social security for caregivers

4. Improve Economic Ownership

Women need:

• • Land titles
  • Inheritance rights
  • Bank credit
  • Market access
  • Digital finance
  • Producer collectives

5. Ensure Safe Public and Work Spaces

• Gender-sensitive transport
• Effective POSH committees
• Street lighting
• Fast response to cybercrime
• Police sensitisation

6. Deepen Political Representation

• Operationalise legislative reservation
• Provide leadership training
• Strengthen inner-party democracy
• Prevent proxy representation
• Protect women candidates from violence

7. Improve Implementation of Laws

The priority should be:

• Faster investigation
• Witness support
• Legal aid
• Accountability of institutions
• Better data collection

8. Engage Men and Boys

Gender equality cannot be achieved by women alone.

Men must share:

• Domestic work
• Childcare
• Family responsibility
• Opposition to violence
• Support for women’s autonomy

9. Adopt Intersectional Policy

Schemes must recognise the distinct needs of:

• Dalit women
• Tribal women
• Minority women
• Migrant women
• Women with disabilities
• LGBTQ+ persons
• Single and elderly women

  The role of women in Indian society has expanded from the largely confined image of a dependent family member to that of a citizen, worker, farmer, entrepreneur, administrator, political representative and social-movement leader.

However, empowerment cannot be measured only by the number of women entering schools, workplaces or legislatures. Genuine empowerment requires women to possess:

• • Voice
  • Choice
  • Agency
  • Resources
  • Safety
  • Representation
  • Control over their bodies and labour