Later Vedic Period

Geographical Area coverage

• During the Later Vedic Period, Aryan settlements expanded to cover almost the entire Northern India, which came to be known as Aryavarta.
• The centre of Vedic culture shifted from the Saraswati River region to the Ganga Valley (Madhya Desa).
• The Later Vedic texts mention several additional rivers, including:
  • Narmada
  • Sadanira (modern Gandak)
  • Chambal
• The eastward expansion of the Aryans is described in the Shatapatha Brahmana, which narrates that Videha Madhava migrated from the Saraswati region, crossed the Sadanira River, and established the Kingdom of Videha (modern Tirhut region of Bihar). According to the text, Agni (Fire God) led the way, followed by Gautama Rahugana (the priest) and Videha Madhava.
• The Later Vedic age witnessed the emergence of several important Janapadas (territorial states), such as:
  • Kuru (formed by the union of the Purus and Bharatas)
  • Panchala (formed by the union of the Turvashas and Krivis)
  • Kashi
• The Vindhya Mountains are mentioned in the Later Vedic literature and were regarded as the southern mountain boundary.
• The Later Vedic texts divided the Indian subcontinent into three broad geographical regions:

• • Aryavarta – Northern India
  • Madhya Desa – Central India
  • Dakshinapatha – Southern India

Polity during Later Vedic Period

• The Later Vedic Period witnessed the emergence of large kingdoms and well-developed urban centres (stately cities), marking a significant shift from the earlier tribal political system.
• The Taittiriya Brahmana mentions the Theory of the Divine Origin of Kingship, according to which the king was regarded as having divine sanction.
• With the increasing authority of the king, the administrative machinery became more elaborate and organized, leading to the appointment of several new civil officials in addition to the existing Purohita (Chief Priest).
• The newly introduced officials included:
  • Bhagadugha – Collector of Taxes
  • Suta / Sarathi – Royal Herald and Charioteer
  • Kshattri – Chamberlain
  • Akshavapa – Courier
• The important military and local officials of the Rigvedic Period continued to function:
  • Senani – Commander of the Army (General)
  • Gramani – Head of the Village
• The Later Vedic age also saw the beginning of a regular provincial administration. Important officials included:
  • Sthapati – Entrusted with the administration of outlying or frontier regions occupied by aboriginal tribes
  • Satapati – Officer placed in charge of a group of one hundred villages
  • Adhikrita – Village official
  • Ugra – Mentioned in the Upanishads and is believed to have functioned as a police officer
• The traditional popular assemblies Sabha and Samiti continued to exercise control over the affairs of the kingdom, as they had done during the Rigvedic period.
• However, the assembly known as Vidatha, which was prominent in the Early Vedic period, completely disappeared during the Later Vedic age.
• Even in the Later Vedic Period, kings did not maintain a permanent standing army, and military forces were generally raised when required.
• The judicial system also underwent further development, with the king playing a central role in the administration of criminal justice.
• Several offences were regarded as serious crimes, including:
  • Killing of an embryo (foeticide)
  • Homicide
  • Murder of a Brahmana (Brahmahatya)
  • Theft of gold
  • Consumption of Sura (alcoholic drink)
• Treason against the state was considered a capital offence and was punishable with the highest penalty.

Society during Later Vedic Period

• As time passed, Yajnas (sacrificial rituals) became increasingly elaborate and complex, leading to the rise of a specialized priestly class known as the Brahmanas.
• With the eastward and southward expansion of the Aryans, a distinct class of Kshatriyas emerged to conquer new territories and administer them, while the remaining Aryans formed the Vaishya class. The term Vaishya is derived from the word Vis, meaning “the people.” The non-Aryan population gradually came to constitute the fourth Varna, the Shudras.
• Despite the development of the Varna system, these social divisions were initially flexible and not completely rigid.
• The institution of Gotra (clan lineage) first appeared during the Later Vedic Period, becoming an important basis for social identity.
• Inter-varna marriages were partially accepted, as higher castes could marry women from lower castes, but marriage with Shudras was prohibited. During this period, the concept of ritual purity and pollution also began to develop.
• The earliest reference to the Four Ashramas (Stages of Life) is found in the Jabala Upanishad. These four stages are:
  • Brahmacharya (Student Life)
  • Grihastha (Householder Life)
  • Vanaprastha (Retired Forest Dweller)
  • Sannyasa (Renunciation)
• The Ashrama System was designed to help an individual attain the Four Purusharthas (Goals of Human Life):
  • Dharma (Righteousness)
  • Artha (Wealth)
  • Kama (Desire)
  • Moksha (Liberation)
• The status of women declined during the Later Vedic age. According to the Aitareya Brahmana, “a daughter is the source of misery, whereas a son is the protector of the family.”
• The Maitrayani Samhita identifies three major evils in society:
  • Liquor
  • Woman
  • Dice
• Although Monogamy (one wife) was regarded as the ideal form of marriage, Polygamy (more than one wife) was widely practised.
• Women were not permitted to participate in political assemblies, indicating a reduction in their public role.
• However, the famous Yajnavalkya–Gargi Dialogue, found in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, demonstrates that some women attained higher education and actively participated in philosophical discussions, reflecting the presence of learned women despite the general decline in their social status.

Types of Hindu Marriage (Vivaha) during Later Vedic Period

The ancient Hindu tradition recognized eight types of marriages (Vivaha), each differing in customs and social acceptance.

1. Brahma Vivaha

• • The father gives his daughter in marriage to a worthy man, usually after providing dowry or gifts.
  • Considered the most ideal and respected form of marriage.

2. Daiva Vivaha

• • The girl is given in marriage to a priest (Ritvik) in lieu of the fees (Dakshina) due for performing a sacrifice.

3. Arsha Vivaha

• • The bride is given in marriage after accepting a symbolic bride-price, generally consisting of a cow and a bull or similar gifts from the groom.

4. Prajapatya Vivaha

• • The father gives his daughter in marriage without demanding any bride-price, while blessing the couple to jointly perform their householder duties (Dharma).

5. Gandharva Vivaha

• • Marriage based on mutual love and consent between the bride and groom.
  • Commonly referred to as Love Marriage.

6. Asura Vivaha

• • A form of marriage in which the groom acquires the bride by paying a substantial bride-price, effectively purchasing the girl.

7. Rakshasa Vivaha

• • Marriage performed by abducting or kidnapping the bride, especially the daughter of a defeated king, often after battle.

8. Paisacha Vivaha

• • Considered the lowest and most condemned form of marriage, where a man marries a woman after seducing or raping her, usually without her knowledge or consent.

Anuloma Vivaha

• A marriage in which the bridegroom belongs to a higher caste (Varna) and the bride belongs to a lower caste.

Pratiloma Vivaha

• The reverse of Anuloma Vivaha, where the bridegroom belongs to a lower caste and the bride belongs to a higher caste.

Sixteen Samskaras (Shodasha Samskaras)

The Sixteen Samskaras are the important life-cycle rituals prescribed in Hindu tradition to sanctify different stages of an individual’s life.

1. 1. Garbhadhana – Conception ceremony
   2. Pumsavana – Ritual for the welfare of the unborn child
   3. Simantonnayana – Ceremony performed during pregnancy
   4. Jatakarma – Birth ceremony
   5. Namakarana – Naming ceremony
   6. Nishkramana – First outing of the child
   7. Annaprashana – First feeding of solid food
   8. Chudakarma (Mundan) – First tonsure ceremony
   9. Karnachhedana – Ear-piercing ceremony
   10. Vidyarambha – Beginning of formal education
   11. Upanayana – Sacred thread initiation ceremony
   12. Vedarambha – Commencement of Vedic studies
   13. Samavartana – Completion of education and return from the Gurukul
   14. Vivaha – Marriage ceremony
   15. Vanaprastha – Retirement to forest life
   16. Antyeshti – Funeral rites (last rites)

Religion during Later Vedic Period

• During the Later Vedic Period, the earlier prominent deities such as Indra and Agni gradually lost their dominant position and were relegated to the background.
• In their place, Prajapati (the Creator of the Universe, later identified with Brahma), Vishnu (the Patron God of the Aryans), and Rudra (the God of Animals, later associated with Shiva/Mahesha) rose to prominence.
• Among these deities, Prajapati came to be regarded as the Supreme God during the Later Vedic age.
• Pushan, who was originally worshipped as the protector of cattle during the Early Vedic Period, gradually became recognised as the deity of the Shudras.
• The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad was the first text to systematically explain the doctrines of Transmigration of the Soul (Punarjanma / Samsara Chakra) and the Law of Karma (deeds and their consequences).
• The simple sacrificial rituals of the Rigvedic period evolved into highly elaborate and complex Yajnas, requiring the services of as many as seventeen priests. Consequently, Vedic and Brahmanical sacrifices (Yajnas) assumed great importance in religious life.

Twelve Ratnins (According to the Shatapatha Brahmana)

The Ratnins were the twelve principal officials and dignitaries associated with the king.

Types of Sacrifices (Yajnas)

The sacrifices performed during the Later Vedic Period were broadly classified into two categories:

1. Laghu Yajnas (Simple / Private Sacrifices)

• These sacrifices were generally performed by householders for personal or domestic purposes.
• Important examples include:
• • Pancha Mahayajna
  • Agnihotra
  • Darsha Yajna – Performed on Amavasya (New Moon Day), the last day of the dark fortnight.
  • Purnamasa Yajna – Performed on Purnima (Full Moon Day).

2. Maha Yajnas (Grand / Royal Sacrifices)

• These were large-scale sacrifices that could only be undertaken by wealthy aristocrats or kings.
• Important Maha Yajnas include:

Rajasuya Yajna

• • A Royal Consecration Ceremony performed to legitimize kingship.
  • In its complete form, it involved a series of rituals extending over one year.
  • In later times, it was replaced by the simplified Abhisheka (Anointment Ceremony).

Vajapeya Yajna

• • Also known as the “Drink of Strength” Sacrifice.
  • The ritual could continue for seventeen days up to one full year.

Ashvamedha Yajna

• • The famous Horse Sacrifice, symbolising royal sovereignty and political supremacy.
  • The principal ceremony lasted for three days.

Agnishtoma Yajna

• • A sacrifice dedicated to Agni (Fire God) involving animal offerings.
  • The main ritual lasted for one day.
  • The Yajnika (performer of the sacrifice) and his wife were required to observe strict vows for one year before the ceremony.
  • During this Yajna, the sacred drink Soma Rasa was ceremonially consumed.

Religious Reform Towards the End of the Vedic Age

• Towards the end of the Later Vedic Period, a strong reaction emerged against excessive rituals, sacrificial ceremonies, and priestly domination.
• This philosophical shift and emphasis on knowledge over ritualism found its fullest expression in the Upanishads, which laid the foundation for later Indian philosophical thought.

Economy during Later Vedic Period

• During the Later Vedic Period, land became more valuable than cattle, reflecting the growing importance of agriculture over pastoralism.
• Agriculture gradually replaced cattle rearing as the primary occupation, and farming techniques became more advanced. The plough was sometimes drawn by as many as 24 oxen, and the use of manure as fertilizer was also known.
• The principal crops cultivated during this period included:
  • Rice
  • Barley
  • Beans
  • Sesame
  • Wheat
• The growth of production and economic activities led to the emergence of new occupations and specialised professions, such as:
  • Fishermen
  • Washermen
  • Dyers
  • Door-keepers
  • Footmen
• Increasing occupational specialization is evident from the distinction made between:
  • Chariot-makers and Carpenters
  • Tanners and Hide-dressers

• Significant progress was achieved in metallurgical knowledge. The Later Vedic texts mention the use of:

• • Tin
  • Silver
  • Iron

In contrast, the Rig Veda primarily refers to Gold and Ayas (interpreted as either Copper or Iron).

• Evidence also points to the organization of merchants into professional guilds, as reflected in references to:
  • Ganas – Corporate or trade associations
  • Shreshins – Heads or elders of merchant guilds
• The Painted Grey Ware (PGW) Culture, an important archaeological culture associated with the Later Vedic Period, flourished approximately between 1100 BC and 600 BC.