Indian Foreign Policy

Indian Foreign Policy

Meaning of Foreign Policy

• Foreign policy refers to the strategy adopted by a country to promote and protect its national interests, ideals, objectives and principles in its relations with other countries.
• It is dynamic in nature and changes according to developments at both the domestic and international levels.
• It includes activities such as:
  • Diplomacy
  • Trade negotiations
  • Military and strategic partnerships
  • International aid and development cooperation
• The fundamental purpose of foreign policy is to safeguard a country’s national interest, security, sovereignty and prosperity.

Historical Background of India’s Foreign Policy

• India possesses one of the oldest civilisational traditions in the world.
• Historically, Indian kingdoms and empires such as the Mauryas, Guptas and Mughals conducted their external relations according to their own political interests.
• During the British colonial period, India’s external relations were determined primarily by British imperial interests.
• After Independence in 1947, India regained the ability to formulate an independent foreign policy based on its own national interests.

Factors Determining India’s Foreign Policy

• India’s foreign policy is broadly influenced by two sets of factors — domestic and international.

Domestic Factors

• • History – colonial experience, freedom struggle and anti-imperialist traditions.
  • Culture and civilisation – traditions of coexistence, tolerance and peaceful engagement.
  • Geography – India’s strategic location, land borders and Indian Ocean position.
  • Economy – developmental requirements, trade, investment and energy needs.
  • Domestic political conditions – political leadership, institutions and national priorities.

International Factors

• • Cold War rivalry between the US-led and Soviet-led blocs.
  • Formation and growing role of the United Nations.
  • Nuclear arms race and global security competition.
  • Movements against colonialism and imperialism.
  • Changing regional and global balance of power.

The “3 S” Framework of Indian Foreign Policy

• India’s major foreign-policy objectives can be summarised through the 3 S’s:
  • Space → maintaining sufficient strategic autonomy in international affairs.
  • Stability → ensuring stability within India and in its neighbourhood.
  • Strength → developing economic, military and soft power to protect and advance national interests.

Objectives and Principles of India’s Foreign Policy

• India’s foreign policy combines the pursuit of national interests with broader international responsibilities.
• It seeks to protect India’s security and developmental interests while promoting peace, justice and international cooperation.

Basic Objectives of India’s Foreign Policy

• Safeguarding National Interest and Sovereignty
  • Protection of territorial integrity, sovereignty and political independence is the foremost objective.
  • India consistently emphasises respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of states.
• Promotion of International Peace and Security
  • India supports:
    • Peaceful coexistence
    • Non-interference
    • Disarmament
    • Resolution of disputes through dialogue and negotiation
  • India’s participation in UN Peacekeeping Operations reflects this commitment.
• Promoting Domestic Development and Well-Being
  • Foreign policy is also used as an instrument for:
    • Economic growth
    • Foreign investment
    • Technology transfer
    • Trade expansion
    • Inclusive development
  • Agreements such as India-Singapore CECA, India-Japan EPA and India-Korea CEPA illustrate the economic dimension of diplomacy.
• Enhancing National Security
  • India seeks to address both traditional and non-traditional security threats.
  • Major instruments include:
    • Strategic partnerships
    • Defence cooperation
    • Counterterrorism cooperation
    • Intelligence sharing
• Enhancing India’s Global Standing
  • India seeks a greater role in global governance and multilateral institutions.
  • India’s participation in forums such as the G20, SCO and G7 outreach meetings reflects its expanding international profile.
• Protecting the Indian Diaspora
  • Protection and welfare of Indians living abroad has become an important foreign-policy objective.
  • Major evacuation operations have included:
    • Operation Devi Shakti – Afghanistan
    • Operation Ganga – Ukraine
    • Operation Kaveri – Sudan

Principles Guiding India’s Foreign Policy

• Panchsheel – peaceful coexistence based on mutual respect and non-interference.
• Non-Alignment – maintaining independence in foreign-policy decision-making.
• Anti-Colonialism and Anti-Imperialism – opposition to colonial domination.
• Anti-Racism – support for racial equality and opposition to discrimination.
• Peaceful Settlement of Disputes – preference for dialogue and negotiation rather than force.
• Multilateralism – support for the United Nations, international law and regional organisations.

Evolution of India’s Foreign Policy

Foreign Policy during the National Movement

• The roots of India’s independent foreign policy can be traced to the Indian National Movement.
• In 1921, the All India Congress Committee (AICC) adopted an important resolution on foreign policy.
• It argued that the colonial Government of India did not represent the views of the Indian people.
• The Madras Session of the Congress in 1927 became another landmark.
  • It stressed that India should conduct its external relations independently, without British interference.
• Between 1921 and 1947, the Congress broadly advocated:
  • Opposition to fascism
  • Opposition to Western imperialism
  • Support for anti-colonial movements
  • Opposition to racial, social and economic discrimination.

Foreign Policy after Independence

• After 1947, India began framing foreign policy according to its national requirements and international circumstances.
• India promoted:
  • Friendship and cooperation with all countries
  • Peaceful relations irrespective of countries’ political systems
  • Friendly relations with neighbouring countries
• Since Independence coincided with the emergence of the Cold War, India avoided becoming part of either major power bloc.
• Consequently, Non-Alignment became one of the central principles of India’s foreign policy.

India under Nehru

• Jawaharlal Nehru played the most important role in shaping India’s early post-Independence foreign policy and is therefore regarded as its principal architect.
• In his 7 September 1946 broadcast, Nehru outlined important foreign-policy objectives:
  • End of colonialism
  • Opposition to racism
  • Independence from power blocs
  • Close relations with China and other Asian neighbours
• Nehru wanted India to remain outside great-power politics while continuing to take positions on questions involving freedom, justice and aggression.
• For Nehru, Non-Alignment did not mean neutrality; it meant retaining India’s independence of decision-making.
• India required peace and stability to address domestic poverty, economic development and national integration.
• Joining a military bloc could have dragged India into the Cold War confrontation and diverted scarce resources towards an arms race.

Nehru and Panchsheel

• Panchsheel emerged as an important principle of India’s foreign policy during Nehru’s period.
• It became particularly important in the context of India-China relations.
• The five principles were:
  • Mutual respect for territorial integrity and sovereignty
  • Mutual non-aggression
  • Mutual non-interference
  • Equality and mutual benefit
  • Peaceful coexistence
• Panchsheel was intended to promote peace, cooperation and respect for national identity.
• At the Bandung Conference of 1955, its principles were incorporated into the Ten Principles of International Peace and Cooperation.
• These principles were subsequently accepted as important foundations of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM).

Non-Alignment Movement

• Non-Alignment aimed to preserve national independence by avoiding membership in the military blocs led by the USA and Soviet Union.
• It was not neutrality, isolationism or political inactivity.
• Instead, it meant:
  • Avoiding permanent military blocs.
  • Taking an independent position on international issues.
  • Judging every issue according to its merits and India’s national interests.
• NAM was associated with five major leaders:
  • Jawaharlal Nehru – India
  • Gamal Abdel Nasser – Egypt
  • Sukarno – Indonesia
  • Kwame Nkrumah – Ghana
  • Josip Broz Tito – Yugoslavia
• The first NAM Summit was held at Belgrade in 1961.

  Importance of NAM for India

• • It allowed India to pursue an independent foreign policy.
  • It enabled India to balance relations with the two superpowers.
  • It reduced pressure to automatically support either bloc.
  • It reinforced the principle that every sovereign state has the right to formulate an independent foreign policy.
  • NAM also supported the democratisation of international institutions and greater representation for developing countries in organisations such as the UN, WTO and World Bank.

Kashmir Issue

• Kashmir became one of the most important factors shaping India-Pakistan relations and India’s security policy.
• The dispute also contributed to the extension of Cold War politics into South Asia.
• India referred the issue to the United Nations.
• The UN Security Council proposed mechanisms including India-Pakistan negotiations and a plebiscite.
• India subsequently opposed:
  • External intervention in the Kashmir dispute.
  • The proposed plebiscite under the prevailing circumstances.
• Kashmir consequently remained a major determinant of India’s defence and external relations.

Indo-China Relations under Nehru

• Nehru initially believed that India and China possessed several common experiences:
  • Both were ancient Asian civilisations.
  • Both had suffered under foreign domination.
  • Both faced poverty and underdevelopment.
• India therefore hoped that cooperation between the two countries could contribute to an Asian resurgence.
• India also supported China’s representation in the United Nations Security Council.
• During the Korean War, India refused to support the US position declaring China an aggressor.

Tibetan Crisis

• After the Chinese Revolution of 1949, China asserted its claim over Tibet.
• In 1950, Chinese forces entered eastern Tibet and occupied Chamdo.
• India protested but also attempted mediation.
• Under the 1954 Panchsheel Agreement, India relinquished several privileges in Tibet inherited from the British period and recognised China’s position regarding Tibet.
• China indicated that Tibet would receive considerable autonomy, although this expectation was not realised.

1962 India-China War

• The conflict primarily emerged from an unresolved boundary dispute.
• Two major factors were:
  • Chinese control over Tibet eliminated the traditional buffer between India and China.
  • China rejected the McMahon Line as the boundary in the eastern sector.
• India later discovered that China had constructed a strategic highway through Aksai Chin.
• China also began depicting disputed territory as part of China in its maps.
• Relations deteriorated further after India granted asylum to the Dalai Lama.
• In 1962, China launched attacks in Aksai Chin and NEFA.
• After the conflict:
  • China retained control over Aksai Chin.
  • NEFA remained under Indian control.
  • India substantially increased its defence expenditure.
  • India’s perceptions of China underwent a major strategic transformation.

Foreign Policy under Lal Bahadur Shastri

• Lal Bahadur Shastri became Prime Minister after Nehru.
• He broadly continued India’s commitment to Non-Alignment.
• At the same time, India developed closer relations with the Soviet Union.

Sirima-Shastri Pact, 1964

• The agreement attempted to settle the problem of people of Indian origin in Ceylon/Sri Lanka.
• Under the agreement:
  • 525,000 were to be repatriated to India.
  • 300,000 were to receive Sri Lankan citizenship.
• The agreement helped address a long-standing source of friction between India and Sri Lanka.

China’s Nuclear Test, 1964

• China conducted its first atomic bomb test during Shastri’s tenure.
• China’s emergence as a nuclear power created considerable security concerns in India and South Asia.
• It also strengthened domestic arguments favouring the development of an Indian nuclear capability.

India-Pakistan War, 1965

• The 1965 India-Pakistan War became a major test of India’s post-Nehru foreign and security policy.
• Kashmir remained the central source of disagreement.
• Important factors behind the conflict included:
  • Political instability and unrest in Kashmir.
  • Pakistan’s acquisition of advanced US-supplied military equipment.
  • Pakistan’s belief that India remained militarily vulnerable after the 1962 China war.
  • Growing China-Pakistan strategic cooperation.

Tashkent Declaration

• The Tashkent Declaration was concluded between India and Pakistan with Soviet mediation.
• Both countries agreed to:
  • Withdraw to pre-war positions.
  • Repatriate prisoners of war.
  • Avoid the use of force.
  • Resolve disputes through peaceful means.
• However, the agreement failed to resolve the Kashmir dispute.

Foreign Policy under Indira Gandhi

• Indira Gandhi broadly continued Non-Alignment, but her approach was comparatively more pragmatic and realist.
• Her foreign policy sought to restore and strengthen India’s international position.
• Her period witnessed India’s emergence as an increasingly important regional power.

Bangladesh Crisis

• In Pakistan’s 1970 elections, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman’s Awami League emerged dominant in East Pakistan.
• Pakistan’s military establishment refused to transfer power.
• A military crackdown in East Pakistan triggered:
  • Political resistance.
  • Large-scale violence.
  • Massive refugee flows into India.
• India provided moral and material assistance to the Bangladesh liberation struggle.
• The US and China supported Pakistan.
• To strengthen its strategic position, India signed the Indo-Soviet Treaty of Peace, Friendship and Cooperation.
• The conflict ultimately resulted in:
  • Surrender of around 90,000 Pakistani troops.
  • Creation of Bangladesh.
  • Emergence of India as a stronger regional power.
  • Return of millions of refugees.
  • Significant enhancement of India’s international prestige.

Shimla Agreement, 1972

• The agreement was signed between Indira Gandhi and Zulfikar Ali Bhutto.
• Major outcomes included:
  • India returned most Pakistani territory captured during the war.
  • Pakistan agreed to respect the Line of Control (LoC).
  • Both countries agreed to resolve their disputes bilaterally.
  • India agreed to return Pakistani prisoners of war, subject to arrangements involving Bangladesh.

Indo-Soviet Relations

• Strategic pressures from China and Pakistan, combined with US support for Pakistan, pushed India closer to the Soviet Union.
• The USSR became an important:
  • Defence partner.
  • Supplier of sophisticated military equipment.
  • Economic partner.
  • Supporter of India’s position on Kashmir.

Indo-Soviet Treaty, 1971

• India and the USSR signed a 20-year Treaty of Peace, Friendship and Cooperation.
• It substantially strengthened the strategic relationship.
• The Soviet Union later supported:
  • India’s approach towards the Shimla Agreement.
  • Bilateral settlement of India-Pakistan disputes.
  • India’s proposal for the Indian Ocean as a Zone of Peace.

Relations with the USA

• India-US relations initially deteriorated because of:
  • US support for Pakistan during the Bangladesh crisis.
  • American arms supplies to Pakistan.
  • US rapprochement with China.
  • Development of the US military base at Diego Garcia.
  • American criticism of India’s 1974 nuclear test.
• Relations subsequently improved in areas including:
  • Trade
  • Science and technology
  • IMF-related support
  • Fuel supply for the Tarapur Nuclear Plant

Foreign Policy under Rajiv Gandhi

• Rajiv Gandhi broadly maintained continuity with the foreign-policy principles of Nehru and Indira Gandhi, while introducing greater flexibility.
• His major priorities included:
  • World peace
  • Non-Alignment
  • Nuclear disarmament
  • Peaceful coexistence
  • Better international economic order
  • Cooperation with neighbouring countries
• His government also moved towards closer engagement with the West for advanced technology.

Nuclear Disarmament

• Rajiv Gandhi strongly advocated global nuclear disarmament.
• He favoured:
  • Complete elimination of nuclear weapons.
  • A time-bound disarmament programme.
  • Participation of all nuclear powers.
  • Replacement of nuclear deterrence with peaceful coexistence.

Commitment to NAM

• Rajiv Gandhi reaffirmed India’s commitment to NAM in 1985.
• He sought to make NAM more responsive to:
  • Economic inequalities
  • Racialism
  • Colonialism
  • Development challenges
  • Environmental concerns.

Strengthening SAARC

• Rajiv Gandhi regarded SAARC as an opportunity to promote regional cooperation.
• He emphasised:
  • Collective self-reliance
  • Multilateralism
  • Economic and cultural cooperation
  • Technical collaboration among South Asian countries.

Indo-Sri Lanka Accord, 1987

• The Indo-Sri Lanka Accord was signed by Rajiv Gandhi and J.R. Jayewardene on 29 July 1987.
• India subsequently deployed the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) in Sri Lanka.
• The IPKF encountered strong resistance, particularly from the LTTE.
• It was eventually withdrawn under Prime Minister V.P. Singh in March 1990.

Foreign Policy under P.V. Narasimha Rao 

• The end of the Cold War in 1991 fundamentally transformed India’s strategic environment.
• The collapse of the Soviet Union ended the bipolar world order, while the USA emerged as the dominant global power.
• Narasimha Rao therefore sought to restructure India’s foreign policy around:
  • Economic reforms
  • Global economic integration
  • Improved relations with major powers
  • Engagement with new strategic partners
• India expanded relations with:
  • USA
  • European Union
  • Russia
  • China
  • Japan
  • Israel
  • Brazil
  • South Africa
  • Southeast Asian countries.

Liberalisation and Foreign Policy

• The 1991 Balance of Payments crisis accelerated economic reforms.
• The New Economic Policy opened the Indian economy to global trade and investment.
• Economic considerations consequently became an increasingly important component of Indian diplomacy.

Impact of the End of Bipolarity

• The disintegration of the USSR created uncertainties regarding:
  • Defence supplies
  • Spare parts
  • Diplomatic support
  • India’s strategic balance against the US and other powers.
• India responded by adopting a more pragmatic and diversified foreign policy.
• Economic and military capabilities became increasingly important instruments of foreign policy.
• India’s growing economic weight strengthened its influence in institutions such as the WTO and G20.

Look East Policy

• The Look East Policy (LEP) was initiated under P.V. Narasimha Rao in the early 1990s.
• Its objective was to deepen India’s engagement with Southeast Asia and ASEAN.
• Major areas included:
  • Trade and investment
  • Connectivity
  • Maritime security
  • Strategic cooperation.

Reasons for Look East Policy

• Countering China’s economic influence in Southeast Asia.
• Finding new markets for India’s expanding middle class, workforce and products.
• Diversifying India’s economic engagement beyond the politically unstable regions of West and Central Asia.

Foreign Policy under I.K. Gujral

Gujral Doctrine

• The Gujral Doctrine focused on improving India’s relations with its immediate neighbours, particularly smaller South Asian states.
• It was based on five principles:
  • India should not insist on reciprocity from smaller neighbours and should provide assistance in good faith.
  • No South Asian country should allow its territory to be used against another country.
  • Countries should not interfere in one another’s internal affairs.
  • All countries should respect each other’s territorial integrity and sovereignty.
  • Bilateral disputes should be settled through mutual negotiations without third-party interference.

Foreign Policy under Atal Bihari Vajpayee

Pokhran-II Nuclear Tests, 1998

• India opposed the discriminatory nature of the global nuclear non-proliferation regime.
• India:
  • Opposed the indefinite extension of the NPT.
  • Refused to sign the CTBT.
  • Conducted a series of nuclear tests in May 1998.
• Pakistan subsequently conducted its own nuclear tests.
• India faced international criticism and economic sanctions.
• India’s nuclear doctrine emphasised:
  • Credible Minimum Deterrence
  • No First Use
  • Commitment to universal and non-discriminatory nuclear disarmament.

Bus Diplomacy and Lahore Declaration

• Vajpayee initiated a Delhi-Lahore bus service to strengthen people-to-people relations.
• Vajpayee personally travelled to Lahore.
• The Lahore Declaration was signed on 21 February 1999.
• India and Pakistan committed themselves to:
  • Peaceful coexistence.
  • Implementation of the Shimla Agreement.
  • Nuclear confidence-building measures.
  • Nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation.
  • Peaceful settlement of outstanding disputes.

Kargil Conflict

• Pakistani intrusions across the LoC led India to launch Operation Vijay.
• India maintained diplomatic communication with major powers.
• The United States called for the withdrawal of Pakistani intruders.
• India’s restraint during the operation helped it gain significant international diplomatic support.

Foreign Policy under Manmohan Singh

• Under Manmohan Singh, Indian diplomacy became increasingly outward-looking, economically integrated and pragmatic.
• Economic development became a major driver of India’s external relations.

Relations with Russia

• India and Russia strengthened their strategic partnership.
• Major areas of cooperation included:
  • BrahMos cruise missile
  • Military technology
  • Combat aircraft
  • Anti-tank missiles
  • Civilian nuclear energy
  • Kudankulam nuclear reactors
  • Economic cooperation.

Relations with the USA

• India-US relations witnessed a significant transformation.
• Factors encouraging closer relations included:
  • India’s economic liberalisation.
  • Need to manage the rise of China.
  • Counterterrorism cooperation.
  • India’s growing economic and strategic importance.

India-US Civil Nuclear Deal

• The agreement sought to:
  • Remove long-standing strategic differences.
  • Support India’s energy security and economic development.
  • Strengthen the global nuclear non-proliferation system.
• It ended the long-standing US restrictions on civilian nuclear trade with India.
• India agreed to place designated civilian nuclear facilities under IAEA safeguards.
• In 2008, the IAEA approved India’s safeguards agreement, paving the way for the NSG exemption.

Manmohan Doctrine

• India’s developmental priorities should guide foreign policy.
• India should pursue greater integration with the global economy.
• Stable and mutually beneficial relations should be maintained with all major powers.
• Greater regional cooperation and connectivity should be promoted.
• India’s foreign policy should reflect both national interests and national values.

Foreign Policy under Narendra Modi

• Modi’s foreign policy began with a strong emphasis on Neighbourhood First, symbolised by inviting SAARC leaders to his first swearing-in ceremony.
• Foreign policy increasingly focused on:
  • Foreign investment
  • Technology
  • Global markets
  • Regional stability
  • National security
  • Soft power.
• The 4 Ds — Democracy, Demography, Demand and Diaspora — were projected as important strengths of India’s global engagement.
• A major objective has been to transform India from a “balancing power” into a “leading power.”

India First

• India First places national interest at the centre of foreign-policy decision-making.
• It combines:
  • Realism
  • Cooperation
  • Coexistence
  • Partnership
  • National capabilities.
• It is also linked with the civilisational principle of Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam — “the world is one family.”

Neighbourhood First Policy

• Gives priority to developing a peaceful, prosperous, connected and integrated neighbourhood.
• Major areas include:
  • Connectivity
  • Development cooperation
  • Trade
  • Political engagement
  • People-to-people contacts.

Cultural Diplomacy and Soft Power

• India increasingly uses its civilisational and cultural heritage as a diplomatic resource.
• Important instruments include:
  • Yoga
  • Buddhism
  • Indian traditions
  • International Solar Alliance
  • Cultural exchanges
  • Digital and social-media diplomacy.

Indian Diaspora

• The Indian diaspora is viewed as an important strategic and soft-power asset.
• Engagement with the diaspora can promote:
  • Trade
  • Investment
  • Technology transfer
  • Cultural exchange
  • Political goodwill.
• The government has also emphasised rapid assistance to Indians in distress abroad.

India-US Relations

• India-US cooperation expanded in both civil nuclear and defence sectors.
• Important defence agreements included:
  • LEMOA – 2016
  • COMCASA – 2018
• These agreements strengthened military interoperability and access to advanced defence technology.

Look East to Act East

• The Look East Policy was upgraded to Act East Policy to demonstrate greater strategic intent.
• Act East has three major dimensions:
  • Institutional
  • Commercial
  • Security
• India expanded engagement through:
  • ASEAN
  • BIMSTEC
  • East Asia Summit
  • India-Myanmar-Thailand Highway
  • Maritime and security cooperation.

SAGAR Vision

• SAGAR – Security and Growth for All in the Region represents India’s approach towards maritime cooperation in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR).
• It was announced in 2015.

  Major Components of SAGAR

• • Security → strengthening coastal and maritime security.
  • Capacity Building → expanding economic and security cooperation.
  • Collective Action → tackling piracy, terrorism and natural disasters.
  • Sustainable Development → promoting regional prosperity.
  • Maritime Engagement → strengthening trust and respect for maritime rules.

  Need for SAGAR

• • Blue Economy
    • Maritime resources can support:
      • Livelihoods
      • Energy security
      • Trade
      • Connectivity
      • Renewable energy
      • Marine-resource development.
  • Regional Security
    • Greater cooperation is required for:
      • Humanitarian assistance
      • Disaster relief
      • Counter-piracy
      • Counterterrorism.
  • Managing China’s Maritime Influence
    • China’s expanding presence in the IOR and the “String of Pearls” have created strategic concerns for India.

  Significance of SAGAR

• • Strengthens India’s partnerships with Indian Ocean littoral states.
  • Reinforces India’s role as a regional security provider.
  • Complements:
    • Act East Policy
    • Sagarmala
    • Project Mausam
    • Blue Economy initiatives.
  • Reflects the growing importance of the maritime domain in Indian foreign policy.

India’s Foreign Policy Challenges

Peaceful and Stable Neighbourhood

• India’s domestic development requires a peaceful and prosperous neighbourhood.
• India needs stronger political, economic and cultural interdependence with neighbouring countries.

Managing Major Powers

• The international system is becoming increasingly multipolar.
• India must simultaneously manage relations with:
  • USA
  • China
  • Russia
  • European powers
  • Other emerging powers.
• The challenge is to preserve strategic autonomy without alienating major partners.

China Challenge

• China’s rise presents both strategic and territorial challenges.
• Major issues include:
  • Border dispute
  • Doklam
  • Galwan
  • Indian Ocean competition
  • China’s relationship with Pakistan.

Terrorism and Extremism

• Cross-border terrorism remains a significant security concern.
• India requires stronger:
  • Intelligence sharing
  • Counterterrorism cooperation
  • Diplomatic coordination.

Economic and Trade Challenges

• India’s external economic interests are affected by:
  • Protectionism
  • Tariffs
  • Trade barriers
  • Global economic instability.
• Economic diplomacy is therefore increasingly important for protecting Indian exports, investments and market access.

Non-Traditional Security Challenges

• Foreign policy must increasingly address:
  • Climate change
  • Cybersecurity
  • Pandemics
  • Critical technologies
  • Energy security
  • Critical minerals.

Strategic Autonomy

• India’s close relations with different and sometimes competing powers create diplomatic complexity.
• Maintaining relations with Russia while deepening ties with the US and Europe is one major example.
• India’s approach therefore continues to emphasise issue-based partnerships and strategic autonomy.

India’s multiangle Diploacy

Cultural Diplomacy

• Cultural diplomacy means using a country’s culture and civilisational assets to advance foreign-policy objectives.
• It strengthens international relations by promoting understanding, respect and people-to-people connections.

  Significance of Cultural Diplomacy

• • Improves the country’s international image.
  • Creates a foundation of trust between societies.
  • Facilitates future political, economic and strategic cooperation.
  • Encourages mutual understanding and reduces cultural differences.
  • Important instruments include:
    • Scholarships
    • Academic exchanges
    • Cultural festivals
    • Artist exchanges
    • Conferences and seminars.

India’s Cultural Diplomacy and Soft Power

• India established the Indian Council for Cultural Relations (ICCR) in 1950.
• ICCR promotes Indian culture through:
  • Cultural centres
  • Festivals of India
  • Academic chairs
  • Cultural exchanges.
• Major Indian soft-power resources include:
  • Yoga
  • Ayurveda
  • Buddhism
  • Bollywood
  • Indian cuisine
  • Indian philosophy
  • Indian diaspora.
• Pravasi Bharatiya Divas and the Know India Programme strengthen India’s engagement with its diaspora.
• The adoption of 21 June as International Day of Yoga significantly expanded India’s cultural influence.

Sports Diplomacy

• Sports diplomacy refers to using sports to influence diplomatic, social and political relations.
• In South Asia, cricket diplomacy has frequently been used in India-Pakistan relations.
• Important examples include:
  • Zia-ul-Haq’s 1987 cricket-for-peace initiative.
  • Vajpayee-era cricket engagement.
  • Manmohan Singh–Pervez Musharraf cricket diplomacy in 2005.
• Sports diplomacy can:
  • Reduce political tension.
  • Facilitate informal dialogue.
  • Promote people-to-people contact.
  • Generate goodwill.
  • Create favourable conditions for formal negotiations.

Space Diplomacy

• Space diplomacy involves using space technology and cooperation to advance diplomatic relations and national interests.
• India’s space diplomacy is largely carried out through ISRO.

  Major Dimensions

• • Satellite and Rocket Cooperation
    • Cooperation with international space agencies in satellite development and launch technologies.
  • Satellite Communication
    • India’s South Asia Satellite was designed to strengthen communication and disaster-management capabilities among neighbouring countries.
  • Disaster Management
    • Satellite data is shared for search, rescue and disaster-management operations.
  • Satellite Navigation
    • NavIC can provide navigation and location-based services.
  • Capacity Building
    • India provides training in remote sensing and space technology to professionals from other countries.
  • Space cooperation enhances India’s reputation as a major space power while generating international goodwill and strengthening its soft power.

Economic Diplomacy

• Economic diplomacy refers to using economic instruments to advance national interests and foreign-policy objectives.
• Major instruments include:
  • Exports and imports
  • Investment
  • Foreign aid
  • Lending
  • Free Trade Agreements
  • Infrastructure projects.
• After the 1991 economic reforms, economic diplomacy became increasingly important.
• Major priorities now include:
  • Market access
  • Energy security
  • Regional economic integration
  • Foreign investment
  • Connectivity.
• India’s Act East Policy has a strong economic component involving ASEAN and regional connectivity projects.
• India also uses platforms such as the WTO to protect national interests on issues including MSP, agricultural subsidies and public stockholding.
• Thus, economic diplomacy connects India’s domestic development objectives with its international engagement.

Defence Diplomacy

• Defence diplomacy refers to military activities undertaken primarily to promote strategic cooperation, mutual confidence and diplomatic goodwill.

  Major Instruments of Defence Diplomacy

• • Military training programmes.
  • Training of foreign military personnel.
  • Deployment of military advisers.
  • Naval ship and aircraft visits.
  • High-level defence visits.
  • Staff talks and defence dialogues.
  • Conferences and seminars.
  • Joint military exercises.
  • India has used defence diplomacy since Independence to strengthen its international partnerships.
  • India’s military experience in areas such as mountain warfare, counter-insurgency and counterterrorism has supported training partnerships with other countries.
  • Defence relations with countries such as Russia, France, Israel and the USA demonstrate India’s preference for strategic autonomy and diversified partnerships.

India’s Contemporary Security Challenges

• India’s contemporary security environment is shaped by a combination of traditional and non-traditional threats.

Cross-Border Terrorism

• Terrorism originating from across India’s borders remains an important national-security challenge.
• It has particularly affected Jammu & Kashmir.

International Terrorism

• India has faced multiple forms of terrorist violence targeting:
  • Civilian centres
  • Economic infrastructure
  • Places of worship
  • Public institutions.

Maritime Security

• The growing strategic importance of the Indo-Pacific and Indian Ocean Region has increased India’s maritime-security responsibilities.
• Major challenges include:
  • Piracy
  • Terrorism
  • Presence of extra-regional powers
  • Security of sea lanes
  • Freedom of navigation.

Cybersecurity

• Cyberspace has emerged as a new domain of warfare.
• Growing digitalisation increases vulnerability to:
  • Malware
  • Ransomware
  • Cyber espionage
  • Attacks on critical infrastructure.

Drug Trafficking

• India’s location between the Golden Triangle and Golden Crescent increases its vulnerability to illegal drug trafficking.
• Drug trafficking also creates wider challenges related to organised crime, terrorism and youth drug abuse.

Nuclear Threat

• India’s security environment is affected by the nuclear capabilities of Pakistan and China.
• India maintains a doctrine centred on nuclear deterrence and No First Use, while continuing to face the challenge of maintaining credible deterrence in an evolving regional security environment.