RIG VEDIC PERIOD

Polity of Rig Vedic Period

Administrative Structure

• • The Kula (family) was the basic unit of both social and political organization.
  • Several Kulas (families) together formed a Grama (village).
  • A number of Gramas constituted a Vis (clan).
  • Several Vis together made up a Jana (tribe or people).
  • Multiple Janas collectively formed a Rashtra (kingdom or country).

Administrative Hierarchy

Nature of Government

• • The Rig Vedic polity was patriarchal in nature.
  • Monarchy was the most common form of government.
  • However, non-monarchical political systems also existed in certain regions.

The King (Rajan)

• • The Rashtra was governed by a King (Rajan).
  • Succession to the throne was generally hereditary, following the law of primogeniture (the eldest son inherited the throne).
  • Some evidence also suggests the existence of elective monarchy, where the ruler may have been chosen by the people or chiefs.

Royal Officials

Although little is known about the complete administrative machinery, some important officials are mentioned:

1. 1. Purohita (Chief Priest)

• • • The Purohita was the highest-ranking royal official.
    • He acted as the:
      • King’s religious adviser
      • Teacher and preceptor
      • Friend and philosopher
      • Guide in political and spiritual matters

1. 2. Senani

• • • The Senani was the Commander-in-Chief of the army.

1. 3. Gramani

• • • The Gramani was the head of the village and looked after local administration.

Military Organization

• The Rig Vedic army mainly consisted of:
  • Foot soldiers (infantry)
  • Charioteers
• Weapons were made from:
  • Wood
  • Stone
  • Bone
  • Metals
• Arrows were tipped with:
  • Metal points, or
  • Poisoned horns
• References are also found to a moving fort called “Purcharishnu”, a mobile military machine used for attacking enemy strongholds.

Religious Role of the King

• Besides political responsibilities, the King also performed religious duties.
• He was regarded as the protector of social order (Dharma) and the upholder of moral values and established customs.

Popular Assemblies

The Rig Vedic period witnessed the existence of several important assemblies that assisted in governance.

Sabha

• • A council consisting of select and distinguished individuals.
  • It later functioned as a court of justice, dealing with legal and judicial matters.

Samiti

• • A popular assembly representing the people.
  • It acted as a check on the arbitrary powers of the king and participated in important political decisions.

Vidatha

• • An assembly associated with religious, military, and social activities.
  • It played an important role in the collective life of the community.

Gana Sabha

• • Another assembly mentioned in Rig Vedic literature, associated with tribal or group deliberations.

Law and Order

The Rig Vedic society recognized several offences, including:

• • Theft
  • Burglary
  • Cattle stealing
  • Cheating

These were considered major crimes and were dealt with through the prevailing judicial and customary systems.

Society during Rig Vedic Period

Varna System

• • The Rig Vedic society was divided into four Varnas (social classes):
    • Brahmana
    • Kshatriya
    • Vaishya
    • Shudra
  • The classification was primarily based on occupation or profession, rather than birth.

Occupations of Different Varnas

• People generally chose professions according to their abilities and interests.
• During the Rig Vedic period, occupations were not hereditary and did not pass automatically from one generation to another.

Occupational Flexibility

• • Members of the same family could follow different professions and belong to different Varnas.
  • This is illustrated by a famous Rig Vedic hymn, where a person declares:

“I am a singer; my father is a physician; my mother is a grinder of corn.”

This reflects the flexible and non-rigid nature of the Varna system in the early Vedic age.

Family System

• • The family (Kula) was the basic unit of society.
  • Society was:
    • Primarily monogamous
    • Patriarchal in nature.

Marriage and Inheritance

• • Child marriage was not practiced.
  • The custom of Niyoga existed, under which:
    • A widow could marry the younger brother of her deceased husband.
  • Property of the father was generally inherited by the son.

Property Rights

• • People possessed rights over both:
  • Movable property such as:
    • Cattle
    • Horses
    • Gold
    • Ornaments
  • Immovable property such as:
    • Land
    • Houses

Education

• • The teacher’s home (Gurukul) functioned as the centre of learning.
  • Students studied sacred texts and religious knowledge under the guidance of the teacher.

Food Habits

Dairy Products

Milk and its products formed an essential part of the Rig Vedic diet, including:

• • Curd
  • Butter
  • Ghee

The Rig Veda also mentions a dish made by cooking grain with milk, known as:

• • Kshira-Pakamodanam

Non-Vegetarian Food

• • The meat of fish, birds, and animals was also consumed.

Position of the Cow

• • The cow was regarded as sacred and was called “Aghanya”, meaning “not to be killed.”
  • The Rig Veda prescribed severe punishment, including:
    • Death penalty, or
    • Expulsion from the kingdom

for those who killed or injured cows.

Drinks

• • Both alcoholic beverages and ritual drinks were known:
    • Sura – an alcoholic drink.
    • Soma – a sacred ritual beverage widely mentioned in Vedic literature.

Economic Life

• • The Aryans were primarily agricultural and pastoral people.
  • Wealth was commonly measured in terms of cattle, especially cows.

Entertainment and Recreation

• Popular forms of entertainment included:
• • Music
  • Dancing
  • Chariot racing
  • Dice (gambling)
• A famous Rig Vedic verse known as the “Gambler’s Lament” expresses the misery of a compulsive gambler: “My wife rejects me and her mother hates me.”
• This hymn highlights the social consequences of gambling in Rig Vedic society.

Religion during Rig Vedic Period

Nature of Religion

• • During the Rig Vedic Age, people primarily worshipped the forces of nature, which were personified as gods and goddesses.
  • It was believed that these divine powers could grant blessings as well as inflict punishments upon humans.
  • Fire (Agni) occupied a special position as it was considered the messenger and intermediary between humans and the gods.

Number and Classification of Gods

• • The Rig Vedic religion recognized 33 gods.
  • These deities were later classified into three broad categories based on their sphere of influence:

1. 1. Terrestrial Gods (Prithvisthaniya)

Associated with the earth.

• • • Prithvi
    • Agni
    • Soma
    • Brihaspati
    • Rivers

1. 2. Aerial/Intermediate Gods (Antarikshasthaniya)

Associated with the atmosphere or sky between heaven and earth.

• • • Indra
    • Rudra
    • Vayu-Vata
    • Parjanya

1. 3. Celestial Gods (Dyusthaniya)

Associated with the heavens.

• • • Dyaus
    • Surya (in five forms)
    • Usha
    • Ashvin

The five forms of Surya were:

• • • Surya
    • Savitri
    • Mitra
    • Pushan
    • Vishnu

Major Deities

Indra (Purandara)

• • Indra was the most important deity of the Rig Vedic Aryans.
  • He was known as Purandara, meaning “Destroyer of Forts.”
  • Around 250 hymns of the Rig Veda are dedicated to him.
  • He was regarded as:
    • The god of rain
    • A warrior deity
    • The protector of the Aryans in battle

Agni

• • Agni was the second most important deity.
  • Nearly 200 Rig Vedic hymns are devoted to him.
  • As the god of fire, he acted as the intermediary between gods and humans, carrying sacrificial offerings to heaven.

Varuna

• • Varuna personified water.
  • He was believed to uphold Rita (Cosmic/Natural Order), also known as Ritasyagopa, the guardian of universal law and morality.

Worship of Surya (Sun)

• The Sun God was worshipped in five different forms:

1. 1. Surya

• • • Travelled across the sky every day in a chariot drawn by seven horses.

1. 2. Savitri

• • • The god of light.
    • The famous Gayatri Mantra is dedicated to Savitri.

1. 3. Mitra

• • • A solar deity associated with friendship and harmony.

1. 4. Pushan

• • • Considered the god of marriage.
    • Also protected:
      • Roads
      • Herdsmen
      • Straying cattle

1. 5. Vishnu

• • • A deity believed to have covered the earth in three steps, known as Upakrama.

Soma

• • Soma originally referred to a plant from which a sacred intoxicating drink was prepared.
  • It was consumed during Agnishtoma sacrifices.
  • Some scholars identify it with hemp (bhang).
  • Soma was known as the “King of Plants.”
  • In later tradition, Soma came to be identified with the Moon.
  • The 9th Mandala of the Rig Veda, containing 114 hymns, is entirely dedicated to Soma and is therefore called the Soma Mandala.

Other Important Deities

Rudra – God of animals.

Dyaus – Considered the oldest deity and regarded as the father of the world.

Yama – God of death.

Ashvins (Nasatya) – Twin gods associated with Health,  Youth , immortality

Aditi –  Revered as the Great Mother of the Gods.

Sindhu –  Personification of the river goddess.

Nature of Worship

• At times, gods were symbolically represented through animals, but actual animal worship did not exist.
• The Rig Vedic religion is best described as Henotheism, meaning:
  • Belief in many gods, but
  • One deity is exalted as supreme at a particular time of worship.

Sacrifices (Yajna)

• Religious practices mainly revolved around Yajnas (sacrificial rituals).
• The ceremonies were simple in nature and intended to please the gods.

Common offerings included:

• • Milk
  • Ghee
  • Grain
  • Flesh
  • Soma

These sacrifices formed the central feature of Rig Vedic religious life and were believed to ensure prosperity, victory, and divine blessings.

Economy of Rig Vedic Period

Transition from Nomadic to Settled Life

• The Aryans had largely moved beyond the nomadic stage and adopted a more settled way of life.
• However, cattle wealth remained the most important measure of prosperity and status.
• Various animals had already been domesticated and played an important role in the economy.

Knowledge of Animals

• The Rig Vedic people were probably unfamiliar with the cat and the camel.
• They were not aware of the tiger.
• However, they had knowledge of several wild animals, including:
  • Lion
  • Elephant
  • Boar

Trade and Commerce

• Trade was limited in scale and had not yet developed into a major economic activity.
• Commercial exchanges existed but remained relatively simple and localized.

Currency and Medium of Exchange

• The concepts of money and markets were known, but they were not widely used.
• Transactions were mainly carried out through:
  • Cows (cattle)
  • Gold ornaments of fixed value
• Coins were not in circulation during this period.

Crafts and Occupations

• With increasing specialization, several skilled professions emerged in Rig Vedic society.
• Important occupations included:
  • Carpenter
  • Blacksmith (Smith)
  • Tanner
  • Weaver
  • Potter
  • Grinder of corn
• This indicates the beginning of occupational diversification and specialized production.

Medicine and Healing

• The Rig Vedic people possessed knowledge of:
  • Treating wounds
  • Curing diseases
• There were specialists skilled in surgery.
• Medical treatment combined:
  • Herbs and medicinal drugs, and
  • Charms and magical spells, both of which were believed to aid healing.

Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) Culture

• The Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) Culture is generally dated to 1500 BC – 1000 BC.
• It is considered one of the important archaeological cultures associated with the early Vedic period in northern India.