Special Grammar Rules

Special Grammar Rules

English contains several special grammatical constructions that do not always follow the most obvious general patterns. These constructions are frequently tested in error detection, sentence improvement, fill in the blanks, cloze tests, transformation of sentences, and competitive-exam grammar questions.

This chapter covers some of the most important special structures involving Question Tags, Conditionals, Emphatic Do/Does/Did, Too/Enough, Since/For, Used to/Would, Had Better/Would Rather, and other frequently tested constructions.

Question Tags

A Question Tag is a short question added at the end of a statement, usually to confirm information, seek agreement, or check whether something is true.

Examples:

Rahul is a student, isn’t he?

They are coming, aren’t they?

She didn’t call you, did she?

The basic principle is:

• Positive Statement → Negative Tag
• Negative Statement → Positive Tag

Basic Structure

Positive statement + negative question tag

Example:

She is intelligent, isn’t she?

Negative statement + positive question tag

Example:

She isn’t angry, is she?

Use the Same Auxiliary Verb

The auxiliary used in the statement is normally repeated in the question tag.

Examples:

She is coming, isn’t she?

They have finished, haven’t they?

You can swim, can’t you?

He will come, won’t he?

We should leave, shouldn’t we?

When There Is No Auxiliary Verb

If the main statement is in the Simple Present or Simple Past without an auxiliary, use:

• do
• does
• did

Examples:

You like coffee, don’t you?

Rahul plays cricket, doesn’t he?

She went home, didn’t she?

Incorrect:

Rahul plays cricket, isn’t he? ✘

Correct:

Rahul plays cricket, doesn’t he? ✔

Pronoun in the Question Tag

The subject in the tag is normally a pronoun corresponding to the subject of the statement.

Example:

Rahul is coming, isn’t he?

Not:

Rahul is coming, isn’t Rahul? ✘

Another example:

The students are ready, aren’t they?

Negative Words Produce Positive Tags

Some words have a negative meaning, even though the sentence does not contain not.

Important examples:

• never
• hardly
• scarcely
• rarely
• seldom
• barely
• nobody
• no one
• nothing
• neither
• none

Such sentences normally take a positive question tag.

Examples:

He never lies, does he?

She hardly speaks, does she?

Nobody called, did they?

Nothing happened, did it?

Neither of them came, did they?

Incorrect:

He never lies, doesn’t he? ✘

Correct:

He never lies, does he? ✔

Everyone, Everybody, Someone, Somebody

With indefinite pronouns referring to people, they is commonly used in the tag.

Examples:

Everyone is ready, aren’t they?

Someone has called, haven’t they?

Everybody enjoyed the programme, didn’t they?

This use of singular they is standard modern English.

Nobody and No One

Use a positive tag, usually with they.

Examples:

Nobody objected, did they?

No one has arrived, have they?

Nothing, Something and Everything

For things, use it.

Examples:

Nothing happened, did it?

Everything is ready, isn’t it?

Something is wrong, isn’t it?

This and That

Use it in the tag.

Examples:

This is your book, isn’t it?

That wasn’t difficult, was it?

These and Those

Use they.

Examples:

These are your books, aren’t they?

Those weren’t expensive, were they?

There

When a sentence begins with there, repeat there in the tag.

Examples:

There is a problem, isn’t there?

There were many students, weren’t there?

I Am

The usual negative tag after I am is:

aren’t I?

Example:

I am late, aren’t I?

Not normally:

I am late, amn’t I? ✘ in standard general English

But with a negative statement:

I’m not late, am I?

Imperative Sentences

Question tags after commands and requests vary according to meaning.

Common forms include:

Open the door, will you?

Please help me, will you?

Don’t make noise, will you?

Forms such as would you, could you, can you may also occur depending on tone.

Let’s

After Let’s, the standard tag is:

shall we?

Example:

Let’s go for a walk, shall we?

Let Us

When let us means allow us, the tag is generally:

will you?

Example:

Let us enter, will you?

Compare:

• Let’s begin, shall we?
• Let us go, will you?

Have

When have is an auxiliary:

She has completed the work, hasn’t she?

When have is an ordinary verb meaning possession, modern English commonly uses do:

You have a car, don’t you?

British English may also use:

You have got a car, haven’t you?

Used to

A common examination form is:

He used to smoke, didn’t he?

Had Better

Example:

We had better leave now, hadn’t we?

This construction is less common in everyday conversation but may appear in grammar examinations.

Question Tag Revision Table

Conditional Sentences

A Conditional Sentence expresses a condition and its result.

It normally contains two clauses:

If-Clause → Condition

Main Clause → Result

Example:

If you work hard, you will succeed.

• If you work hard → condition
• you will succeed → result

The major types are:

• Zero Conditional
• First Conditional
• Second Conditional
• Third Conditional
• Mixed Conditional

Zero Conditional

Used for:

• universal truths
• scientific facts
• general truths
• habitual results

Structure:

If + Simple Present, Simple Present

Examples:

If you heat ice, it melts.

If water reaches 100°C at standard atmospheric pressure, it boils.

If people exercise regularly, they generally feel healthier.

The result is presented as generally or regularly true.

First Conditional

Used for a real or reasonably possible future condition.

Structure:

If + Simple Present, will + V1

Example:

If you work hard, you will succeed.

If it rains, we will stay at home.

Incorrect:

If you will work hard, you will succeed. ✘ in an ordinary first conditional

Correct:

If you work hard, you will succeed. ✔

Other modals can also occur in the result clause.

Examples:

If you finish early, you can leave.

If it rains, we may cancel the match.

Will in an If-Clause

Although will is normally avoided for a simple future condition, it can occur when it expresses willingness, insistence, or deliberate behaviour.

Example:

If you will wait here, I will speak to the manager.

Here, will expresses willingness rather than ordinary future time.

Second Conditional

Used for:

• unreal or unlikely present/future situations
• hypothetical situations
• imaginary conditions

Structure:

If + Simple Past, would + V1

Example:

If I had more money, I would buy a new car.

If she knew the answer, she would tell us.

The past tense here does not necessarily indicate past time. It expresses hypothetical distance or unreality.

Were in Hypothetical Conditions

In formal English, were is traditionally used with all persons in highly hypothetical conditions, especially with be.

Example:

If I were you, I would accept the offer.

If he were here, he would help us.

In informal English, was may sometimes occur, but competitive examinations generally prefer:

If I were…

Third Conditional

Used for an unreal past condition—something that did not happen and therefore produced an unreal past result.

Structure:

If + had + V3, would have + V3

Example:

If I had studied harder, I would have passed the examination.

Meaning:

• I did not study hard enough.
• I did not pass.

Another example:

If she had left earlier, she would have caught the train.

Incorrect:

If she would have left earlier, she would have caught the train. ✘

Correct:

If she had left earlier, she would have caught the train. ✔

Mixed Conditionals

A Mixed Conditional combines different time references.

A common pattern is:

Past Condition → Present Result

Structure:

If + Past Perfect, would + V1

Example:

If I had accepted that job, I would be in Delhi now.

The condition belongs to the past, but the result concerns the present.

Another pattern is:

Present Condition → Past Result

Example:

If he were more careful, he would not have made that mistake yesterday.

Unless

Unless generally means:

if…not

Example:

Unless you work hard, you will fail.

Equivalent:

If you do not work hard, you will fail.

Avoid an unnecessary second negative.

Incorrect:

Unless you do not study, you will fail. ✘ if the intended meaning is if you do not study

Correct:

Unless you study, you will fail. ✔

Provided/Providing That

These expressions mean only if / on condition that.

Example:

You may borrow the car provided that you drive carefully.

We will support the plan providing that the costs remain reasonable.

As Long As

Can express a condition.

Example:

You may stay here as long as you follow the rules.

In Case

In case means taking a precaution because something may happen.

Example:

Take an umbrella in case it rains.

Compare:

If it rains, use the umbrella.

→ condition

Take an umbrella in case it rains.

→ precaution before the possible event

Conditional Structures at a Glance

Emphatic Do/Does/Did

Do, does, and did are commonly used as auxiliaries to form questions and negatives.

Examples:

Do you know him?

She does not agree.

Did he come?

However, they can also be used in affirmative sentences for emphasis.

This is called Emphatic Do.

Do for Emphasis

Use do with:

• I
• we
• you
• they
• plural subjects

Examples:

I do understand your problem.

They do work hard.

You do look tired.

The word do emphasises that the statement is genuinely true.

Does for Emphasis

Use does with:

• he
• she
• it
• singular third-person subjects

Example:

She does work hard.

Rahul does know the answer.

Did for Past Emphasis

Use did to emphasise an affirmative past action.

Examples:

I did call you yesterday.

She did complete the assignment.

He did warn us about the danger.

Use V1 after Do/Does/Did

This is extremely important.

Incorrect:

She does works hard. ✘

Correct:

She does work hard. ✔

Incorrect:

He did completed the work. ✘

Correct:

He did complete the work. ✔

Rule:

do/does/did + V1

The auxiliary carries the tense/agreement.

Emphatic Do in Imperatives

Do can make an invitation or request more persuasive or emphatic.

Examples:

Do come in.

Do sit down.

Do visit us again.

Too/Enough

Too and enough express degree or sufficiency, but their meanings and positions differ.

Too

Too before an adjective or adverb generally means more than is desirable, acceptable, or possible.

Structure:

too + adjective/adverb

Examples:

The box is too heavy.

He drives too fast.

The water is too hot.

Too + Adjective + To-Infinitive

Structure:

too + adjective + to + V1

Example:

He is too weak to walk.

Meaning:

He is so weak that he cannot walk.

Another example:

The box is too heavy to lift.

Too + Adjective + For + Object + To-Infinitive

Structure:

too + adjective + for + object + to + V1

Example:

The box is too heavy for me to lift.

The question is too difficult for the child to answer.

Too Much and Too Many

Use:

too much + uncountable noun

Examples:

There is too much traffic.

He spends too much money.

Use:

too many + plural countable noun

Examples:

There are too many students in the room.

She made too many mistakes.

Enough

Enough means as much or as many as required.

Its position depends on what it modifies.

With a noun:

enough + noun

Examples:

We have enough food.

There are enough chairs.

With an adjective/adverb:

adjective/adverb + enough

Examples:

She is strong enough.

He ran quickly enough.

Incorrect:

She is enough strong. ✘

Correct:

She is strong enough. ✔

Enough + To-Infinitive

Structure:

adjective + enough + to + V1

Example:

She is old enough to drive.

He is strong enough to lift the box.

Enough + For + Object + To-Infinitive

Example:

The room is large enough for fifty people to sit comfortably.

Too vs Very

Very intensifies an adjective without necessarily implying excess.

The tea is very hot.

→ strongly hot

The tea is too hot to drink.

→ excessively hot for the intended purpose

Therefore:

very ≠ too

Too…To and So…That Transformation

Example:

He is too weak to walk.

Can be transformed as:

He is so weak that he cannot walk.

Another example:

The box is too heavy for me to lift.

→ The box is so heavy that I cannot lift it.

Enough and So…That

Example:

He is strong enough to lift the box.

→ He is so strong that he can lift the box.

The exact transformation should preserve the original meaning.

Since/For

Since and for are commonly used with perfect and perfect continuous tenses to express time.

The basic distinction is:

Since → Point of Time

For → Period/Duration of Time

Since

Use since to indicate the starting point of an action or state.

Examples:

• since Monday
• since 2020
• since January
• since morning
• since childhood
• since 5 p.m.
• since last week

Sentences:

I have lived here since 2020.

She has been studying since morning.

They have known each other since childhood.

For

Use for to indicate a duration or period of time.

Examples:

• for two hours
• for three days
• for five years
• for a week
• for a long time
• for several months

Sentences:

I have lived here for five years.

She has been studying for two hours.

Point vs Period

Since + Clause

Since can be followed by a clause indicating the starting event.

Example:

I have known him since we were children.

She has lived here since she got married.

A common pattern is:

Present Perfect + since + Simple Past

Example:

I have not seen him since he left Delhi.

It Is/Has Been…Since

A common construction is:

It is/has been + period + since + Simple Past

Examples:

It has been five years since I saw him.

It is two months since she left the city.

The has been form is especially common in modern usage.

Since as a Conjunction of Reason

Since can also mean because.

Example:

Since you are here, we can begin the meeting.

This use should not be confused with since as a time expression.

For as a Conjunction

For can also mean because, particularly in formal or literary English.

Example:

We decided to leave, for it was getting late.

This is different from for expressing duration.

Common Since/For Errors

Incorrect:

I have lived here since five years. ✘

Correct:

I have lived here for five years. ✔

Incorrect:

She has been waiting for 8 a.m. ✘

Correct:

She has been waiting since 8 a.m. ✔

Remember:

Starting Point → Since

Duration → For

Used to/Would

Both used to and would can refer to repeated actions in the past, but they are not always interchangeable.

Used to

Structure:

used to + V1

It expresses:

• a past habit
• a repeated past action
• a past state or situation

that is generally no longer true.

Examples:

I used to play cricket every evening.

She used to live in Delhi.

There used to be a cinema here.

Used to for Past States

Used to can describe states.

Examples:

I used to believe that story.

He used to be very shy.

She used to have long hair.

This is important because would is generally not used in the same way for ordinary past states.

Would for Repeated Past Actions

Would + V1 can describe repeated or habitual past actions, particularly when the past time context has already been established.

Example:

When we were children, we would play outside every evening.

Every summer, my grandfather would take us to the village.

Would Not Normally for Past States

Incorrect or unnatural for the intended habitual-state meaning:

I would be shy when I was a child. ✘ if simply meaning I used to be shy

Better:

I used to be shy when I was a child. ✔

Similarly:

She used to own a small shop. ✔

Not normally:

She would own a small shop. ✘ for a simple past state

Used to vs Would

Negative of Used to

The standard modern form is:

did not use to + V1

Example:

I did not use to drink coffee.

Because did already carries the past tense, use remains in its base form.

Question with Used to

Use:

Did + subject + use to + V1?

Example:

Did you use to play football?

Used to vs Be Used to

Do not confuse these structures.

used to + V1

→ past habit/state

Example:

I used to wake up early.

be used to + noun/V-ing

→ be accustomed to

Example:

I am used to waking up early.

Get Used to

get used to + noun/V-ing

means become accustomed to.

Example:

She soon got used to working at night.

Compare:

• I used to work at night. → past habit
• I am used to working at night. → accustomed
• I am getting used to working at night. → becoming accustomed

Had Better/Would Rather

Both expressions are followed by special verb patterns and are frequently tested in examinations.

Had Better

Had better is used to give strong advice, recommendation, or warning.

Structure:

had better + V1

Examples:

You had better leave now.

We had better take an umbrella.

He had better consult a doctor.

Incorrect:

You had better to leave. ✘

Correct:

You had better leave. ✔

Although had looks like a past form, had better usually refers to the present or future.

Negative of Had Better

Structure:

had better not + V1

Example:

You had better not be late.

We had better not disturb him.

Had Better vs Should

Both can express advice, but had better often suggests a stronger warning or an undesirable consequence if the advice is ignored.

Compare:

You should leave now.

→ advice

You had better leave now.

→ stronger advice/warning

Would Rather

Would rather expresses preference.

Structure:

would rather + V1

Examples:

I would rather stay at home.

She would rather walk.

Incorrect:

I would rather to stay home. ✘

Correct:

I would rather stay home. ✔

Would Rather…Than

Structure:

would rather + V1 + than + V1

Example:

I would rather walk than wait for the bus.

She would rather study than watch television.

Maintain parallel structure.

Would Rather + Different Subject

When the person performing the preferred action is different from the subject of would rather, a special structure is used.

For a present/future preference:

would rather + subject + Simple Past

Example:

I would rather you stayed here.

Meaning:

I prefer that you stay here.

Another example:

She would rather he came tomorrow.

The past form expresses distance or preference, not necessarily past time.

Past Preference with Would Rather

For a preference about an earlier action:

would rather + subject + had + V3

Example:

I would rather you had told me the truth.

Meaning:

I wish you had told me the truth.

Would Rather Have + V3

When the subject itself expresses an unrealised past preference:

would rather have + V3

Example:

I would rather have stayed at home.

Meaning:

I preferred staying home, but that did not happen.

Prefer vs Would Rather

Compare:

I prefer tea to coffee.

I prefer walking to driving.

I would prefer to stay at home.

I would rather stay at home.

Important patterns:

• prefer X to Y
• prefer V-ing to V-ing
• would prefer to + V1
• would rather + V1
• would rather X than Y

Incorrect:

I prefer tea than coffee. ✘

Correct:

I prefer tea to coffee. ✔

Common Special Constructions

Several special structures repeatedly appear in competitive examinations and should be learned as complete grammatical patterns.

No Sooner…Than

Used when one action happens immediately after another.

Structure:

No sooner + had + subject + V3 + than + Simple Past

Example:

No sooner had I reached the station than the train arrived.

Remember:

No sooner → Than

Incorrect:

No sooner had I reached the station when the train arrived. ✘

Correct:

No sooner had I reached the station than the train arrived. ✔

Hardly/Scarcely…When

Structures:

Hardly + had + subject + V3 + when + Simple Past

Scarcely + had + subject + V3 + when + Simple Past

Examples:

Hardly had I reached home when it started raining.

Scarcely had she entered the room when the phone rang.

Remember:

• No sooner → than
• Hardly → when
• Scarcely → when

Inversion after Negative Expressions

When certain negative or restrictive expressions come at the beginning of a sentence, subject–auxiliary inversion is normally required.

Important expressions include:

• never
• rarely
• seldom
• hardly
• scarcely
• no sooner
• little
• not only
• under no circumstances
• at no time
• nowhere

Example:

Never have I seen such a beautiful place.

Not:

Never I have seen… ✘

Another example:

Rarely does he make mistakes.

Seldom do we see such courage.

Not Only…But Also

Normal structure:

She is not only intelligent but also hardworking.

When not only begins the clause, inversion occurs:

Not only is she intelligent, but she is also hardworking.

With an ordinary verb:

Not only did he lose the match, but he also injured himself.

Neither/Nor + Inversion

To agree with a preceding negative statement:

I don’t like coffee. Neither does she.

Rahul cannot swim. Nor can Mohan.

Structures:

Neither/Nor + auxiliary + subject

So + Auxiliary + Subject

To agree with a preceding positive statement:

I like tea. So does she.

Rahul can swim. So can Mohan.

Compare:

• Positive agreement → So + auxiliary + subject
• Negative agreement → Neither/Nor + auxiliary + subject

So Do I vs So I Do

These constructions have different meanings.

So do I.

→ I do too.

Example:

I love reading.

So do I.

But:

So I do.

→ emphatic confirmation, approximately Indeed I do.

The word order changes the meaning.

Too and Either in Agreement

Too can express positive agreement.

Example:

I like coffee.

I do too.

Either can express agreement with a negative statement.

Example:

I don’t like coffee.

I don’t either.

Compare:

• So do I.
• I do too.
• Neither do I.
• I don’t either.

So…That

Structure:

so + adjective/adverb + that + clause

Example:

He was so tired that he fell asleep immediately.

She spoke so softly that I could hardly hear her.

Such…That

Structure:

such + noun phrase + that + clause

Example:

It was such a difficult question that nobody could answer it.

Compare:

The question was so difficult that nobody could answer it.

It was such a difficult question that nobody could answer it.

So Many/So Much/So Few/So Little

Examples:

There were so many people that we could not enter.

He had so little money that he could not buy food.

Structures:

• so many + plural countable noun
• so much + uncountable noun
• so few + plural countable noun
• so little + uncountable noun

Such a/an + Adjective + Singular Noun

Example:

It was such a beautiful day that we went for a picnic.

Not:

It was so beautiful day… ✘

Correct:

It was such a beautiful day… ✔

Too…To

Example:

He is too weak to walk.

Equivalent:

He is so weak that he cannot walk.

Enough…To

Example:

She is strong enough to lift the box.

Equivalent idea:

She is so strong that she can lift the box.

As If/As Though

As if and as though introduce a comparison with an apparent or imagined situation.

Example:

He behaves as if he owns the place.

When the comparison is clearly unreal or hypothetical, a past form is often used:

He behaves as if he owned the place.

For an unreal earlier event:

She looked as though she had seen a ghost.

It Is Time

A special structure is:

It is time + subject + Simple Past

Example:

It is time we went home.

It is time you started studying seriously.

Although the verb is past in form, the meaning concerns the present or immediate future.

It Is Time + To-Infinitive

Also correct:

It is time to go home.

Compare:

It is time to leave.

It is time we left.

It Is High Time

It is high time indicates that something should already be done.

Structure:

It is high time + subject + Simple Past

Example:

It is high time you started working seriously.

Incorrect:

It is high time you start working seriously. ✘ in the traditional examination construction

Correct:

It is high time you started working seriously. ✔

Wish + Past Form

For an unreal or desired present situation:

wish + Simple Past

Example:

I wish I knew the answer.

Meaning:

I do not know the answer.

With be, formal grammar often prefers:

I wish I were taller.

Wish + Past Perfect

For regret about the past:

wish + had + V3

Example:

I wish I had studied harder.

Meaning:

I did not study hard enough.

Wish + Would

wish + would may express dissatisfaction or a desire for someone/something to change behaviour.

Example:

I wish you would stop making noise.

If Only

If only expresses a strong wish or regret.

Present unreal:

If only I knew the answer!

Past regret:

If only I had studied harder!

Would You Mind

Use:

Would you mind + V-ing…?

Example:

Would you mind opening the window?

Incorrect:

Would you mind to open the window? ✘

Correct:

Would you mind opening the window? ✔

With a different subject, traditional formal English may use a possessive:

Would you mind my opening the window?

Object forms are also common in modern English:

Would you mind me opening the window?

Do You Mind If…

Example:

Do you mind if I open the window?

For a more tentative/polite form:

Would you mind if I opened the window?

Cannot Help + Gerund

Structure:

cannot help + V-ing

Meaning:

cannot avoid doing something

Example:

I cannot help laughing.

Incorrect:

I cannot help to laugh. ✘ in this idiomatic meaning

Cannot But + Bare Infinitive

A formal construction is:

cannot but + V1

Example:

I cannot but admire his courage.

Meaning:

I cannot avoid admiring his courage.

Have/Get Something Done

The causative structure:

have/get + object + V3

means arranging for someone else to perform a service or action.

Examples:

I had my car repaired.

She got her hair cut.

This does not normally mean the subject personally performed the action.

Make + Object + Bare Infinitive

Active:

The teacher made him rewrite the answer.

Structure:

make + object + V1

But in passive:

He was made to rewrite the answer.

Remember:

• Active → made him write
• Passive → was made to write

Let + Object + Bare Infinitive

Structure:

let + object + V1

Example:

Let him go.

Incorrect:

Let him to go. ✘

Help + Object + Verb

Both forms are standard:

She helped me carry the bags.

She helped me to carry the bags.

Prevent/Stop + Object + From + Gerund

Structure:

prevent/stop + object + from + V-ing

Examples:

The police prevented him from entering the building.

The rain stopped us from playing cricket.

Keep + Object + From + Gerund

Example:

The heavy rain kept us from leaving the house.

By + Gerund

By + V-ing commonly expresses method.

Example:

You can improve your English by reading regularly.

He succeeded by working hard.

Without + Gerund

Example:

He left without saying goodbye.

Incorrect:

He left without say goodbye. ✘

Correct:

He left without saying goodbye. ✔

On/Upon + Gerund

On/Upon + V-ing can mean when/immediately after.

Example:

On reaching the station, he bought a ticket.

Equivalent:

When he reached the station, he bought a ticket.

In Spite of/Despite

Use:

despite + noun/gerund

in spite of + noun/gerund

Examples:

Despite being tired, he continued working.

In spite of the rain, they continued playing.

Incorrect:

Despite of the rain… ✘

Correct:

Despite the rain… ✔

Because vs Because of

Use:

because + clause

because of + noun/noun phrase

Examples:

The match was cancelled because it was raining.

The match was cancelled because of the rain.

Although vs Despite

Compare:

Although he was tired, he continued working.

Despite being tired, he continued working.

In spite of being tired, he continued working.

Unless vs Until

Do not confuse these words.

Unless expresses a condition:

Unless you study, you will fail.

Until expresses time:

Wait here until I return.

A negative with until can be perfectly correct:

I will not leave until you return.

By the Time

By the time indicates that one action is completed or reaches a stage before another time/event.

Past:

By the time I arrived, the train had left.

Future:

By the time you arrive, I will have finished the work.

As Soon As

For future reference, the subordinate clause normally uses a present tense, not will.

Incorrect:

I will call you as soon as I will reach home. ✘

Correct:

I will call you as soon as I reach home. ✔

Common Error Patterns at a Glance

Revision Table

Key Points to Remember

• Question Tags normally follow:
  • Positive statement → negative tag
  • Negative statement → positive tag
• Negative words such as never, hardly, rarely, seldom, nobody, nothing require a positive tag:
  • He never lies, does he?
• Remember:
  • I am → aren’t I?
  • Let’s → shall we?
  • Everyone → they
  • Nothing → it
• Conditional formulas:
  • Zero → If + Present, Present
  • First → If + Present, will + V1
  • Second → If + Past, would + V1
  • Third → If + had + V3, would have + V3
• In an ordinary first conditional, do not normally use will in the if-clause:
  • If you study, you will pass.
• For hypothetical advice:
  • If I were you…
• For unreal past conditions:
  • If I had known, I would have helped.
• Emphatic structures always use:
  • do + V1
  • does + V1
  • did + V1
• Remember the position of enough:
  • enough + noun
  • adjective/adverb + enough
• Too normally indicates excess:
  • too difficult to solve
• Since indicates a starting point:
  • since Monday
  • since 2020
• For indicates a duration:
  • for two days
  • for five years
• Do not confuse:
  • used to + V1 → past habit/state
  • be used to + V-ing → accustomed to
  • get used to + V-ing → become accustomed to
• Would can describe repeated past actions but is not normally used for simple past states in the same way as used to.
• Remember:
  • had better + V1
  • would rather + V1
  • would prefer + to + V1
• With a different subject:
  • I’d rather you stayed.
  • I’d rather you had told me earlier.
• Memorise these pairs:
  • no sooner…than
  • hardly…when
  • scarcely…when
  • not only…but also
  • either…or
  • neither…nor
• Remember important non-finite constructions:
  • Would you mind waiting?
  • cannot help laughing
  • prevent him from entering
  • without speaking
  • by working
• Causative and bare-infinitive patterns:
  • let him go
  • made him work
  • was made to work
  • had the car repaired
• Special hypothetical structures often use a past form for present meaning:
  • If I were you…
  • I wish I knew…
  • It is time we left.
  • I would rather you stayed.

These special constructions are highly important because competitive examinations often test the exact grammatical pattern rather than merely the general meaning of a sentence. Learning these structures as complete formulas—such as had better + V1, would rather + V1, used to + V1, be used to + V-ing, no sooner…than, and if + had + V3 → would have + V3—makes error detection and sentence correction considerably easier.