The Gandhian Era (1917-1947) -

The Gandhian Era (1917-1947)

Mahatma Gandhi (1869–1948): Chronological Overview

Table of Contents

In South Africa (1893–1914)

1893

Gandhi arrived in South Africa, beginning his public career.

1894

Established the Natal Indian Congress (NIC) to organise the Indian community.

1899

Organised the Indian Ambulance Corps during the Boer War.

1904

Started the journal Indian Opinion.
Founded the Phoenix Settlement (Phoenix Farm) near Durban.

1906

Initiated the first Satyagraha Movement against the Asiatic Ordinance in Transvaal.

1907

Launched another Satyagraha opposing the Compulsory Registration (Black Act).

1908

Arrested and imprisoned in Johannesburg Jail (First Jail Term).

1910

Established Tolstoy Farm near Johannesburg, later regarded as Gandhi Ashram in South Africa.

1913

Organised Satyagraha against the non-recognition of non-Christian marriages in Cape Town.

1914

Returned to India after concluding his South African struggle.
Honoured with Kaisar-i-Hind Medal for organising the Indian Ambulance Corps.

In India (1915–48)

1915

Arrival in India

- Reached Bombay on 9 January 1915.
- Founded the Satyagraha Ashram at Kochrab (Ahmedabad) on 20 May 1915.
- Later shifted the Ashram to Sabarmati.

1916

Entry into National Politics

- Though present at the Lucknow Session of the INC, Gandhi remained politically inactive.
- At the request of Raj Kumar Shukla, he agreed to visit Champaran.

1917

Champaran Satyagraha

- Led his first major movement in India against the exploitation of Indigo cultivators.
- Marked the beginning of Gandhian mass politics in India.

Ahmedabad Mill Strike

- Mediated the dispute between textile workers and mill owners.

Kheda Satyagraha

- Organised a campaign demanding revenue suspension following crop failure.
- Became Gandhi’s first Non-Cooperation-style rural agitation.

1919

Rowlatt Satyagraha

- Called for nationwide protest against the Rowlatt Act.
- Observed 6 April 1919 as National Protest Day.

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre

- Returned the Kaisar-i-Hind Medal in protest after the tragedy.

Khilafat Conference

- Elected President of the All India Khilafat Conference (November 1919, Delhi).

1920–22

Non-Cooperation & Khilafat Movement

- Officially launched on 1 August 1920.
- Formally adopted by the INC at the Nagpur Session (December 1920).
- Suspended after the Chauri Chaura Incident (February 1922).

1921

Congress Leadership

- Presided over the Ahmedabad Session.
- Became the first and only Congress President from Gujarat.

1922

Withdrawal from Active Politics

- Temporarily stepped back from direct political activities.
- Focused on the Constructive Programme.

1930–31

Civil Disobedience Movement

- Began with the Dandi March (12 March–6 April 1930).
- Culminated in the Gandhi–Irwin Pact (5 March 1931).

1931

Round Table Conference

- Participated in the Second Round Table Conference in London as the sole representative of the Indian National Congress.

1934

Political Retirement

- Withdrew from active Congress politics.
- Shifted to Sevagram Ashram (Wardha) for constructive work.

1940

Individual Satyagraha

- Initiated the Individual Satyagraha Movement against India’s forced participation in the Second World War.

1942

Quit India Movement

- Issued the historic call:
  - “Do or Die.”
- Following the launch of the movement, Gandhi and other Congress leaders were immediately arrested.

1942–44

Detention

- Confined at Aga Khan Palace, Pune.
- During imprisonment:
  - Mahadev Desai died (15 August 1942).
  - Kasturba Gandhi passed away (22 February 1944).

1945

Political Revival

- Gandhi’s influence within the national movement regained momentum after the end of the Second World War.

1946

Communal Harmony Efforts

- Visited Noakhali (East Bengal) to restore communal peace.
- Later travelled to Calcutta for similar reconciliation efforts.

1947

Partition Period

- Deeply saddened by the Partition of India.
- Stayed in Calcutta during 15 August 1947, observing the day through prayer and fasting while working for communal harmony.

1948

Assassination

- On 30 January 1948, Gandhi was assassinated by Nathuram Godse at Birla House, New Delhi.
- His reported final words were “Hey Ram.”

Final Suggestion

Gandhi proposed that, after Independence, the Indian National Congress should dissolve itself and transform into a Lok Sevak Sangh, dedicated to constructive nation-building rather than electoral politics.

Facts about Gandhi

Birth & Early Life

Date of Birth: 2 October 1869
Birthplace: Porbandar, Gujarat

Note: The United Nations observes 2 October as the International Day of Non-Violence (Antarrashtriya Ahimsa Diwas).

Family

Father: Karamchand Gandhi
Mother: Putlibai

Mentor & Associates

Political Mentor: Gopal Krishna Gokhale
Private Secretary: Mahadev Desai

Major Intellectual Influences

Gandhi’s philosophy evolved under the influence of:

- John Ruskin – Unto This Last
- Leo Tolstoy
- The Bible
- The Bhagavad Gita

Important Writings

Books

- Hind Swaraj (1909)
- My Experiments with Truth (Autobiography, 1927) (covers life up to 1922)

Newspapers & Journals

- Indian Opinion (1903–15) – Published in English and Gujarati (briefly also in Hindi & Tamil).
- Harijan (1933–51) – Published in English, Gujarati & Hindi.
- Young India (1919–31) – English weekly.
- Navajivan / Navjeevan (1919–32) – Gujarati journal.

Other Names

Titles & Popular Names

- “Mahatma” – Conferred by Rabindranath Tagore (1917).
- “Malang Baba” – Popularly used by tribal communities of the North-West Frontier.
- “Half-Naked Fakir” – Coined by Winston Churchill.
- “Rashtrapita (Father of the Nation)” – Popularised by Subhas Chandra Bose (1944).

Main Events during the Gandhian Era

Rowlatt Act (1919)

Background

- During the administration of Lord Chelmsford, a committee headed by Justice Sidney Rowlatt was constituted to investigate revolutionary activities.

Key Provision

- Empowered the government to detain individuals without trial and impose severe restrictions on civil liberties.

Gandhi’s Response

- Gandhi denounced the Act as oppressive.
- Called for a nationwide Satyagraha on 6 April 1919.
- Arrested on 8 April 1919, intensifying public unrest, particularly in Delhi, Ahmedabad, and Punjab.

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (13 April 1919)

Immediate Cause

- Arrest of Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew and Dr. Satyapal under the Rowlatt Act.

The Incident

- A large peaceful gathering assembled at Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar on 13 April 1919.
- Brigadier General Reginald Edward Harry Dyer (R.E.H. Dyer) ordered indiscriminate firing without warning.
- Since the exits were blocked, people had no route of escape.
- Hundreds were killed, while more than 1,200 sustained injuries.

Administrative Context

- Michael O’Dwyer was the Lieutenant Governor of Punjab.

Historical Significance

- Became a decisive turning point in Indo-British relations.
- Strengthened the resolve of Indians for complete independence.

Related Event

- Udham Singh later assassinated Michael O’Dwyer in London (1940) to avenge the massacre.

Khilafat Movement (1920–22)

The Caliph (Khalifa) of Turkey was regarded by many Muslims as the spiritual head of the Islamic world.
Following the First World War, British actions threatened the position of the Ottoman Caliphate, causing widespread concern among Indian Muslims.

Leadership

- Led by the Ali Brothers:
  - Maulana Mohammad Ali
  - Maulana Shaukat Ali
- Prominent support was also provided by:
  - Maulana Abul Kalam Azad

Gandhi’s Role

- Gandhi extended full support to the movement.
- Viewed Hindu–Muslim unity as essential for strengthening the National Movement.
- Integrated the Khilafat issue with the Non-Cooperation Movement, transforming it into a broad-based mass struggle.

Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–22)

Launch

Approved during the Calcutta Session (September 1920) of the Indian National Congress.
Gandhi regarded “Swaraj” as the movement’s ultimate objective.

Programme of the Movement

Renunciation of Titles

- Surrender of honorary distinctions and official decorations.

Boycott of Government Institutions

- Refusal to attend:
  - Government schools & colleges
  - Law courts
  - Official ceremonies
  - Government functions

Economic Boycott

- Promotion of Swadeshi.
- Rejection of foreign cloth and imported goods.

Resignation from Government Service

- Encouraged withdrawal from government employment and military service.

Mass Mobilisation

Nationwide Tour

- Mahatma Gandhi travelled extensively to popularise the movement.

Educational Boycott

- The campaign gained remarkable momentum, particularly in Punjab under Lala Lajpat Rai.

Lawyers Who Gave Up Practice

Several prominent lawyers abandoned their legal careers, including:

- Motilal Nehru
- C.R. Das
- C. Rajagopalachari
- Saifuddin Kitchlew
- Vallabhbhai Patel
- Aruna Asaf Ali

Public Participation

- Volunteers organised picketing outside shops selling foreign cloth and liquor.
- Large sections of society participated in the boycott campaign.

Prince of Wales Visit (1921)

On his arrival in Bombay (17 November 1921), the Prince of Wales was greeted with:
- Hartals
- Black flag demonstrations
- Mass protests

Withdrawal of the Movement

Chauri Chaura Incident

- On 5 February 1922, protesters attacked a police station at Chauri Chaura (Gorakhpur, U.P.), resulting in the death of several policemen.

Gandhi’s Decision

- Viewing the incident as inconsistent with non-violence, Gandhi withdrew the Non-Cooperation Movement on 12 February 1922.

Swaraj Party (1923)

Background

The withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation Movement created disappointment among many nationalists.
Leaders such as Motilal Nehru, C.R. Das, and N.C. Kelkar advocated a new constitutional strategy.

Formation

Established on 1 January 1923 as the Congress–Khilafat Swaraj Party.

Objective

Contest elections to the Legislative Councils created under the Government of India Act, 1919.
Enter the councils to obstruct colonial administration from within.
Press for responsible government and self-rule.

Electoral Performance

In the 1923 elections, the party secured 45 seats.
Emerged as a major force in the Central Legislative Assembly.
Obtained strong representation in Central Provinces and became the largest party in Bengal.

Major Demands

Release of political prisoners
Provincial autonomy
Repeal of repressive legislation

Decline

After the death of C.R. Das (1925), the party increasingly adopted a policy of cooperation with the government.
Internal disagreements eventually led to its break-up in 1926.

Simon Commission (1927)

Background

Appointed by the British Government to examine the working of the Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms (1919) and recommend future constitutional changes.

Composition

Constituted entirely of British members.
No Indian representative was included.

Indian Response

Political parties united in boycotting the Commission.
The slogan “Simon Go Back” became the symbol of nationwide protests.

Lahore Demonstration

During a protest in Lahore, Lala Lajpat Rai sustained severe injuries in a police lathi-charge.
He later succumbed to these injuries.

Revolutionary Response

To avenge Rai’s death, Bhagat Singh and his associates assassinated J.P. Saunders in December 1928.

Nehru Committee Report (1928)

Constitution

A committee headed by Motilal Nehru was constituted to draft a constitutional framework for India.

Important Members

Motilal Nehru
Tej Bahadur Sapru

Recommendations

Proposed Dominion Status for India.
Suggested principles for a future constitutional system.

Impact

Triggered an intense debate between supporters of Dominion Status and advocates of Complete Independence.

14 Points of Jinnah (March 1929)

Background

Muhammad Ali Jinnah, leader of the All India Muslim League, rejected the Nehru Report.

Purpose

Formulated the Fourteen Points to safeguard Muslim political interests and outline constitutional demands.

Historical Importance

Became the principal constitutional programme of the Muslim League and significantly influenced later constitutional negotiations.

Lahore Session (December 1929)

Presiding Officer

The historic session of the Indian National Congress at Lahore was chaired by Jawaharlal Nehru.

Major Resolution

The Congress formally adopted “Poorna Swaraj” (Complete Independence) as its ultimate national objective.

Independence Day Declaration

On 31 December 1929, the National Tricolour was unfurled.
26 January 1930 was declared Independence Day, with a pledge to reject British authority.

Dandi March / Salt Satyagraha (1930)

Objective

Launched to achieve Poorna Swaraj through Civil Disobedience.

Beginning of the March

Gandhi commenced the march from Sabarmati Ashram on 12 March 1930.

Destination

Reached Dandi (Navsari District, Gujarat) after travelling approximately 240 miles over 24 days.

Salt Law Violation

On 6 April 1930, Gandhi symbolically violated the Salt Law by collecting natural salt from the seashore.

Significance

Marked the beginning of the Civil Disobedience Movement.
Triggered nationwide participation cutting across regions and social groups.
Inspired widespread boycott of foreign goods, mass protests, hartals, and law defiance.
Women actively joined the movement in large numbers.
Around one lakh (100,000) people were arrested during the agitation.

First Round Table Conference (1930)

Venue & Period

Convened in London beginning in November 1930.

Purpose

To deliberate upon constitutional reforms following the Simon Commission.

Participation

The Indian National Congress boycotted the conference.
Representatives of:
- Princely States
- Muslim League
- Other political groups participated.

Outcome

In the absence of the Congress, meaningful progress could not be achieved.
The conference concluded without a decisive settlement.

Gandhi–Irwin Pact / Delhi Pact (5 March 1931)

Background

Negotiations between Mahatma Gandhi and Lord Irwin were facilitated by:
- Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru
- M.R. Jayakar

Key Features

Civil Disobedience Movement was suspended.
Congress agreed to participate in the Second Round Table Conference.
The Government agreed to:
- Release most political prisoners (except those convicted of violence).
- Restore confiscated property under specified conditions.
- Permit peaceful manufacture of salt in coastal areas.

Contemporary Criticism

Jawaharlal Nehru reportedly expressed disappointment, remarking that the agreement had not fulfilled the larger aspirations of the movement.

Second Round Table Conference (1931)

Venue

Held in London between September and December 1931.

Congress Representation

Mahatma Gandhi attended as the sole representative of the Indian National Congress.

Major Issues

Constitutional reforms.
Minority representation.
Federal structure.
Future political status of India.

Challenges

The British Government, under Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald, remained unwilling to concede India’s principal political demands.
Sharp disagreements emerged regarding communal representation and constitutional safeguards.

Outcome

The conference ended without any substantial agreement, and Gandhi returned to India disappointed.

Communal Award / MacDonald Award (16 August 1932)

Announcement

Declared by British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald on 16 August 1932.

Major Provisions

Extended communal representation to several communities, including:
- Muslims
- Sikhs
- Europeans
- Depressed Classes (Scheduled Castes)

Gandhi’s Opposition

Gandhi strongly opposed the proposal as it promoted communal fragmentation.
Began a fast unto death while imprisoned, demanding withdrawal of the separate electorate for the Depressed Classes.

National Response

The issue generated widespread concern across India.
Leaders from different ideological backgrounds initiated negotiations, including:
- Madan Mohan Malaviya
- Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
- C. Rajagopalachari (Rajaji)

Poona Pact / Gandhi–Ambedkar Pact (24 September 1932)

Background

Emerged as a compromise to resolve the controversy created by the Communal Award.

Main Provisions

Separate Electorate Withdrawn

- The proposal for a Separate Electorate for the Depressed Classes was abandoned.

Reservation Enhanced

- Reserved seats in Provincial Legislatures increased from 71 to 148.
- Representation in the Central Legislature was fixed at approximately 18%.

Outcome

- Gandhi ended his fast after the agreement.
- The pact was signed on behalf of:
  - Depressed Classes – Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
  - Caste Hindus – Madan Mohan Malaviya and other representatives.
- The agreement replaced Separate Electorates with Joint Electorates coupled with reserved seats.

Third Round Table Conference (17 November – 24 December 1932)

Proceedings

Convened in London.

Features

Major Indian Nationalist leaders remained absent, many being imprisoned.
The conference witnessed limited participation.

Result

Failed to produce any meaningful constitutional breakthrough.

The Government of India Act, 1935

Background

Enacted on the basis of recommendations emerging after the Simon Commission and subsequent constitutional discussions.
Received Royal Assent on 2 August 1935.

Salient Features

Provincial Autonomy

- Introduced Provincial Autonomy, granting greater powers to elected provincial governments.

End of Dyarchy in Provinces

- Dyarchy at the provincial level was abolished.

Federal Scheme

- Proposed an All-India Federation, though it was never fully implemented.

Responsible Government

- Ministers became accountable to the Provincial Legislatures.

Political Response

Congress Position

- Initially rejected the Act as inadequate.
- Demanded a Constituent Assembly elected on the basis of Adult Franchise to frame India’s Constitution.

Jawaharlal Nehru’s Observation

- Described the Act as a “New Charter of Slavery.”

Later Development

Despite criticism, the Congress contested the 1937 Provincial Elections under the Act.
Formed ministries in several provinces after securing electoral success.

Muslim League’s Reaction

The League expressed dissatisfaction with Congress Ministries.
Muhammad Ali Jinnah accused the Congress administration of pursuing policies unfavourable to Muslim interests.

Resignation of Congress Ministries (22 December 1939)

Background

At the outbreak of the Second World War (1939), the Viceroy declared India a belligerent without consulting Indian leaders.

Congress Stand

Condemned the unilateral decision.
Declared that support for Britain’s war effort would be possible only after recognising India’s freedom.

British Response

The Viceroy rejected Congress demands and refused to provide a satisfactory constitutional assurance.

Resignation

Consequently, Congress Ministries across the provinces resigned on 22 December 1939.

Muslim League’s Reaction

Muhammad Ali Jinnah welcomed the resignations.
Called upon Indian Muslims to observe 22 December 1939 as the “Day of Deliverance.”

Pakistan Resolution / Lahore Resolution (24 March 1940)

Background

The intellectual roots of a separate Muslim homeland can be traced to Allama Muhammad Iqbal, who advocated the idea of a consolidated Muslim-majority region in North-West India.
The concept was further refined by Chaudhry Rahmat Ali at Cambridge, who coined the term “Pakistan” in 1933.

Political Transformation

Initially viewed as a theoretical proposal, the idea gradually evolved into the principal political objective of the All India Muslim League under Muhammad Ali Jinnah.

Lahore Session (1940)

Held on 24 March 1940.
The Muslim League adopted the Lahore Resolution (Pakistan Resolution).
Rejected the Federal Scheme proposed under the Government of India Act, 1935.
Demanded the creation of independent Muslim-majority states in suitable regions.

Historical Importance

Became the ideological foundation for the eventual creation of Pakistan.

August Offer / Linlithgow Offer (8 August 1940)

Announcement

Introduced by Lord Linlithgow, the then Viceroy of India, on 8 August 1940.

Major Proposals

Promised the eventual establishment of Dominion Status.
Accepted the principle that Indians would participate in framing a future Constitution.
Assured that minority interests would receive full consideration during constitutional reforms.

Congress Response

Rejected the Offer.
Under the leadership of Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, the Congress considered the proposals inadequate and unsatisfactory.

Muslim League’s Response

Welcomed the assurance that constitutional changes would not be imposed without the consent of Muslims.
Continued to strengthen its demand for a separate homeland.

Outcome

Failed to secure united Indian support for the British war effort.
Further widened differences between:
- Congress and the British Government
- Congress and the Muslim League

Individual Civil Disobedience / Individual Satyagraha (October 1940 – December 1941)

Launch

Approved by the Congress Working Committee on 17 October 1940.

First Satyagrahi

Acharya Vinoba Bhave became the first Individual Satyagrahi.
Arrested on 21 October 1940.

Subsequent Participants

Leaders such as Jawaharlal Nehru and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel also took part and were arrested.

Conclusion

The movement generated limited public enthusiasm.
Gandhi eventually called off the campaign.

Cripps Mission (March–April 1942)

Background

During the Second World War, Britain sought Indian cooperation as the military situation deteriorated with rapid Japanese advances in Asia.

Mission

Sir Stafford Cripps, a member of the British War Cabinet, was sent to India to negotiate with Indian political leaders.

Main Proposal

Promised Dominion Status after the end of the War.
Suggested the creation of a Constituent Assembly for framing the future Constitution.

Reaction

Rejected by almost all major political groups because the proposals failed to satisfy nationalist expectations.

Gandhi’s Observation

Gandhi famously described the proposal as:
- “A post-dated cheque on a crashing bank.”

Quit India Movement (1942)

Launch

The Quit India Resolution was adopted on 8 August 1942 at the Bombay Session of the Indian National Congress held at Gowalia Tank Maidan.

Call to the Nation

Gandhi issued the historic slogan:
- “Do or Die.”

Immediate British Action

On 9 August 1942, Gandhi and almost the entire top Congress leadership were arrested, including:
- Jawaharlal Nehru
- Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel
- Other senior leaders.

Mass Uprising

Leadership at the grassroots level was carried forward by:
- Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia
- Aruna Asaf Ali
- Usha Mehta
- Numerous local activists.

Nature of the Movement

Widespread:
- Sabotage of communication networks
- Damage to government offices
- Cutting of telegraph lines
- Disruption of administrative machinery

Parallel Governments

Several Parallel Governments (Prati Sarkars) emerged:

Place	Leadership
Ballia (U.P.)	Chittu Pandey
Tamluk, Midnapore (Bengal)	Satish Chandra Samanta
Satara (Maharashtra)	Y.B. Chavan & Nana Patil (Longest-lasting Parallel Government)
Talcher (Orissa)	Local nationalist leadership

Outcome

The movement was eventually suppressed through severe governmental repression.
Nevertheless, it significantly accelerated India’s march towards Independence.

Gandhi’s Fast (10 February – 7 March 1943)

Background

While imprisoned, Gandhi undertook a 21-day fast as a moral protest.

Purpose

Responded to British allegations that he had encouraged violence during the Quit India Movement.

Significance

Despite concerns regarding his deteriorating health, Gandhi successfully completed the fast.
Reaffirmed his commitment to Truth (Satya) and Non-Violence (Ahimsa) while holding the colonial government responsible for the prevailing situation.

C.R. Formula (1944)

Proposal

Formulated by Chakravarti Rajagopalachari (C.R.) in 1944 as an attempt to resolve the Congress–Muslim League deadlock.

Main Provisions

Boundary Commission

- Suggested appointment of a Commission to identify Muslim-majority districts in North-West and North-East India.

Plebiscite

- Proposed a referendum based on adult franchise in the identified areas to determine whether they wished to form a separate sovereign state.

Post-Partition Cooperation

- In the event of partition, both states would jointly manage:
  - Defence
  - Commerce
  - Communications
  - Other matters of common interest.

Mutual Commitments

- Muslim League to support the demand for Indian Independence.
- Congress to cooperate in establishing an Interim Government.

Response

Muhammad Ali Jinnah

- Rejected the proposal.
- Insisted on prior acceptance of the Two-Nation Theory.
- Wanted only the Muslim population of the proposed regions to participate in the plebiscite.

Hindu Leaders

- V.D. Savarkar and others strongly opposed the scheme.

Wavell Plan & Shimla Conference (14 June – 14 July 1945)

Background

Improvement in the European war situation and worsening economic conditions in India compelled the British Government to reconsider its policy.

Wavell Plan

Announcement

- Introduced by Lord Wavell, the Viceroy of India.

Major Proposal

- Reconstitution of the Viceroy’s Executive Council.
- Proposed equal representation for Hindus and Muslims, with balanced communal participation.

Shimla Conference

Purpose

- Convened at Shimla to discuss implementation of the Wavell Plan.

Participants

- Around 22 prominent Indian leaders participated after the release of members of the Congress Working Committee.

Reason for Failure

- Disagreement over the nomination of Muslim representatives.
- Jinnah insisted that only the Muslim League should nominate all Muslim members to the Executive Council.
- The Conference ended without agreement.

INA Trial (November 1945)

Accused Officers

P.K. Sehgal
Shah Nawaz Khan
Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon

Venue

Conducted at the Red Fort, Delhi.

Charges

Tried for waging war against the British Crown.

Public Reaction

Massive nationwide support emerged in favour of the INA personnel.
Strong public opinion compelled the Government to suspend the sentences.

Defence Team

Prominent lawyers included:

- Bhulabhai Desai
- Tej Bahadur Sapru
- Jawaharlal Nehru
- Asaf Ali
- Muhammad Ali Jinnah

Impact

Intensified nationalist sentiment.
Created growing unrest within the Indian armed forces.

Azad Hind Fauj (Indian National Army – INA)

Origin

After the Japanese advance into South-East Asia, large numbers of Indian soldiers became Prisoners of War (POWs).

Formation

Indian Independence League

- Established at Bangkok (March 1942) under the leadership of Rash Behari Bose.

INA

- Initially organised under Captain Mohan Singh.

Reorganisation

In 1943, Subhas Chandra Bose assumed leadership and reorganised the INA into an effective military force.

Provisional Government

On 21 October 1943, Bose proclaimed the Provisional Government of Free India (Azad Hind Government) at Singapore.

Military Structure

Three principal brigades were named after:

Subhas Brigade
Gandhi Brigade
Nehru Brigade

Women’s Regiment

Rani Jhansi Regiment, an all-women combat unit.

Decline

Following Japan’s defeat (1945), the INA also collapsed.

Death of Subhas Chandra Bose

Reportedly died in an air crash near Taipei (Taiwan) on 18 August 1945 while travelling towards Tokyo.

Royal Indian Navy (RIN) / Ratings Mutiny (18 February 1946)

Beginning

Started aboard HMIS Talwar, Bombay, where naval ratings protested against:
- Racial discrimination
- Poor food
- Harsh treatment

Expansion

The mutiny spread rapidly to HMIS Hindustan (Karachi) and several other naval establishments.

Political Intervention

Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and Muhammad Ali Jinnah appealed to the ratings to surrender.

Historical Importance

Demonstrated growing dissatisfaction within the armed forces.
Convinced the British that maintaining colonial rule through military force would become increasingly difficult.

Cabinet Mission (March–June 1946)

Announcement

Declared by British Prime Minister Clement Attlee on 15 March 1946.

Members

Lord Pethick-Lawrence
Sir Stafford Cripps
A.V. Alexander

Objective

Recommend a constitutional framework for the transfer of power.
Negotiate with Indian political parties.

Major Recommendations

Constituent Assembly

- Proposed the establishment of a Constituent Assembly to frame the Constitution of India.

Interim Government

- Recommended the formation of an Interim Government at the Centre.

Response

Muslim League

- Accepted the Plan on 6 June 1946, while continuing to pursue the demand for Pakistan.

Congress

- Accepted the scheme partially, particularly the proposal for a Constituent Assembly, but differed on several interpretations of the grouping provisions.

Direct Action Day (16 August 1946)

Background

Following the Congress victory in the Constituent Assembly elections, the All India Muslim League intensified its demand for Pakistan.

Call for Direct Action

On 16 August 1946, the Muslim League observed Direct Action Day.

Consequences

Triggered widespread communal riots across several parts of India.
Marked a significant deterioration in Hindu–Muslim relations.

Interim Government (2 September 1946)

Formation

An Interim Government was constituted on 2 September 1946.

Leadership

Headed by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru.

Muslim League’s Position

Initially refused to join the Government.
This decision contradicted its earlier acceptance of the Cabinet Mission Plan.
The League later joined the Interim Government after negotiations.

Formation of the Constituent Assembly (9 December 1946)

First Meeting

The Constituent Assembly met for the first time on 9 December 1946.

President

Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected as the President of the Assembly.

Muslim League’s Stand

The Muslim League boycotted the proceedings and did not participate.

Attlee’s Announcement (20 February 1947)

Declaration

British Prime Minister Clement Attlee announced that British rule in India would end by 30 June 1948.

Administrative Change

Declared that Lord Mountbatten would replace Lord Wavell as the Viceroy of India.

Mountbatten Plan (3 June 1947)

Announcement

Unveiled by Lord Mountbatten on 3 June 1947.

Background

Replaced the earlier Balkan Plan, which had been abandoned.

Major Features

Partition of India

- Accepted the principle of dividing British India into India and Pakistan.

Division of Provinces

- Punjab and Bengal were to be partitioned based on majority population.

Constituent Assemblies

- Separate Constituent Assemblies were to frame the Constitutions of India and Pakistan.

Transfer of Power

- Proposed an early transfer of authority to the two new Dominions.

Acceptance

Approved by both the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League, paving the way for Partition.

The Indian Independence Act, 1947

Enactment

Based on the Mountbatten Plan.
Passed by the British Parliament as the Indian Independence Act, 1947.

Major Provisions

Provided for the Partition of British India.
Created two independent Dominions:
- India
- Pakistan
Facilitated the transfer of power to the new governments.

Integration of Princely States

Accession

By 15 August 1947, almost all Princely States signed the Instrument of Accession with India.

Important Exceptions

- Jammu & Kashmir
- Junagadh
- Hyderabad

Jammu & Kashmir

Maharaja Hari Singh signed the Instrument of Accession in October 1947 after the invasion by Pakistani tribal forces.

Junagadh

Despite a Muslim ruler and Hindu-majority population, a plebiscite (February 1948) resulted in an overwhelming vote for accession to India.
The Nawab subsequently left for Pakistan.

Hyderabad

The Nizam of Hyderabad initially refused accession.
The State was integrated into India through Operation Polo (September 1948).

French Colonies

Integration

By 1954, the French settlements were integrated with India:
- Pondicherry (Puducherry)
- Chandernagore
- Mahé
- Karaikal
- Yanam