Post-Gupta Period / Vardhana Dynasty

Pushyabhuti / Vardhana Dynasty

• The Pushyabhuti (Vardhana) Dynasty was founded at Thaneswar (present-day Kurukshetra district, Haryana) by Pushyabhuti, probably in the early 6th century AD.
• Initially, the Pushyabhutis served as feudatories of the Guptas, but they became independent after the Hun invasions.
• The first notable ruler of the dynasty was Prabhakaravardhana (580–605 AD).
• After his death, he was succeeded by his eldest son Rajyavardhana (605–606 AD).

Rajyavardhana (605–606 AD)

• Rajyavardhana faced immediate political challenges after his accession.
• His brother-in-law Grahavarman, the Maukhari ruler of Kannauj and husband of Rajyashri, was defeated by Deva Gupta of Malwa, who acted in alliance with Shashanka, the ruler of Gauda (North-West Bengal).
• Kannauj was occupied and Rajyashri was imprisoned.
• Rajyavardhana launched a campaign against Deva Gupta, defeated and killed him, but was treacherously killed by Shashanka in 606 AD.
• During these events, Rajyashri escaped into the forests of Central India.

Harshavardhana (606–647 AD)

Accession and Early Achievements

• After the death of Rajyavardhana, his younger brother Harshavardhana, also known as Siladitya, ascended the throne in 606 AD, marking the beginning of the Harsha Era.
• One of his first actions was to rescue his widowed sister Rajyashri from the Vindhyan forests, where she was preparing to commit self-immolation.

Conquests and Expansion

• Harsha drove Shashanka out of Kannauj and made it his new capital, thereby becoming the most powerful ruler of North India.
• Seeking revenge for the deaths of Rajyavardhana and Grahavarman, Harsha marched against Gauda, but he could not defeat Shashanka during his lifetime.
• After Shashanka’s death in 637 AD, Harsha annexed Magadha and the former territories of Shashanka’s kingdom.
• Harsha also defeated Dhruvasena II, the Maitraka ruler of Vallabhi, but later restored his kingdom and strengthened diplomatic relations by marrying his daughter to Dhruvasena II.

Defeat by Pulakeshin II

• Harsha’s southern expansion ended in failure when he confronted Pulakeshin II, the Chalukya ruler of Vatapi (Badami).
• At the Battle of the Narmada, Pulakeshin II decisively defeated Harsha, marking the only major defeat of Harsha’s career.
• Chalukya records refer to Harsha as “Sakalottarapatheshvara” (Lord of the Entire North).

Extent of Empire

• Harsha’s empire extended across most of Northern India, Eastern Rajasthan, and the Gangetic Valley up to Assam.
• Several feudatory kingdoms also acknowledged his supremacy.

Foreign Relations

• Harsha maintained friendly diplomatic relations with China.
• In 641 AD, he dispatched an embassy to the Tang Emperor Tai-Tsung.
• In return, three Chinese missions visited his court.
• The celebrated Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang (Hiuen-Tsang) stayed in India for eight years (635–643 AD) during Harsha’s reign.

Great Religious Assemblies

   Kannauj Assembly (643 AD)

• • Harsha convened the Kannauj Assembly in 643 AD in honour of Xuanzang.
  • The objective was to popularise Mahayana Buddhism.

   Prayaga Assembly (643–644 AD)

• • The Prayaga Assembly was organised during 643–644 AD.
  • It was held at the confluence of the Ganga, Yamuna, and Saraswati rivers.
  • Harsha celebrated a grand religious festival every five years, and this gathering is often regarded as the origin of the Kumbh Mela tradition.

Religion

• Although Harshavardhana was personally a Shaiva, he displayed remarkable religious tolerance toward all faiths.
• Xuanzang portrayed him as a liberal Mahayana Buddhist ruler who respected the deities and beliefs of different sects.
• According to Xuanzang, Nalanda University was supported by the revenue from one hundred villages granted by Harsha.

Death and Succession

• Harshavardhana died in 647 AD without leaving a direct heir.
• After his death, the throne was reportedly usurped by his minister Arunashva.

Patronage of Literature

• Harsha was not only a great patron of learning but also a distinguished author.
• He composed three Sanskrit plays:
  
  • Nagananda
  • Ratnavali
  • Priyadarshika
• His court included several eminent scholars, notably:
  
  • Banabhatta – author of Harshacharita and Kadambari
  • Mayura – author of Mayura Shataka
  • Surya Shataka (attributed to Mayura)

Administration

• Harsha administered his empire broadly on Gupta administrative principles.
• However, compared to the Guptas, his administration became more feudal and decentralised, reflecting the changing political conditions of the early medieval period.

States of the Deccan and South India

Chalukyas of Vatapi (Badami) (543 AD – 755 AD)

Rise and Capital

• After the decline of the Vakatakas, political dominance in the Deccan passed to the Chalukyas of Vatapi (Badami).
• The Chalukyas established their capital at Vatapi (modern Badami) in the Bijapur district of Karnataka.

Pulakeshin II (609–642 AD)

• The greatest ruler of the dynasty, Pulakeshin II (609–642 AD), successfully checked Harshavardhana’s attempt to conquer the Deccan, thereby preserving the independence of the Chalukya kingdom.
• The celebrated Aihole Inscription, composed by his court poet Ravikirti, records his achievements and victories.
• In 625 AD, Pulakeshin II exchanged diplomatic embassies with the Persian king Khusrau II, sending an ambassador to Persia and receiving one in return.
• The renowned Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang (Hiuen-Tsang) visited his kingdom and left valuable accounts of its prosperity.

Decline

• The Pallava ruler Narasimhavarman I (Mamalla) invaded the Chalukya kingdom, defeated and killed Pulakeshin II, and captured Vatapi.
• After this victory, Narasimhavarman I assumed the title “Vatapikonda”, meaning “Conqueror of Vatapi.”
• In 757 AD, the Chalukya dynasty was overthrown by its feudatories, the Rashtrakutas.

Vesara Style (Deccan Style) of Architecture

• The Chalukyas pioneered the Vesara Style, also known as the Deccan Style, in the construction of structural temples.
• This architectural style later reached its highest development under the Rashtrakutas and Hoysalas, combining features of both Nagara and Dravida traditions.

Important Specimens of Chalukyan Temples

1. Vesara Style Temples

• Jinedra Temple – Aihole
• Meguti Temple – Aihole (associated with Ravikirti)
• Vishnu Temple – Aihole
• Lad Khan Temple – Aihole (traditionally attributed to Surya worship)
• Durga Temple – Aihole

Note: Aihole is often called the “Town of Temples” because it contains around 70 temples.

2. Nagara Style Temples

• Papanatha Temple – Pattadakal

3. Dravida Style Temples

• Virupaksha Temple – Pattadakal
• Sangamesvara Temple – Pattadakal

Pallavas of Kanchi (575 AD – 897 AD)

Origin and Capital

• The origin of the Pallavas remains controversial among historians.
• They are generally believed to have been a local tribe that established their authority over Tondaimandalam, also known as the “Land of Creepers.”
• The Pallavas were followers of orthodox Brahmanical Hinduism, and their capital was Kanchi (Kanchipuram).

Political Rivalry with the Chalukyas

• The Pallavas and Chalukyas engaged in prolonged conflicts to establish supremacy over the fertile region between the Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers.
• The celebrated Pallava ruler Narasimhavarman I (630–668 AD) defeated the Chalukyas, occupied their capital Vatapi (Badami), and emerged as one of the greatest rulers of South India.

Pallava Art

Contribution to Dravida Architecture

• The Pallavas pioneered the Dravida style of temple architecture, which later attained its highest development under the Cholas.
• The evolution of Dravidian temple architecture under the Pallavas can be studied through four distinct architectural phases.

1. Mahendravarman Group

    Ruler

• • Mahendravarman I (600–630 AD)

    Important Monuments

• • Temple at Bhairavakona (North Arcot District)
  • Ananteswara Temple at Undavalli (Guntur District)

2. Mamalla Group

    Ruler

• • Narasimhavarman I “Mamalla” (630–668 AD)

    Important Monuments

• • Mandapa (Rock-cut) Temples
  • Ratha (Monolithic) Temples
  • Shore Temples (Sapta Pagodas) at Mamallapuram (Mahabalipuram)

3. Rajasimha Group

    Ruler

• • Narasimhavarman II “Rajasimha” (680–720 AD)

    Important Monuments

• • Kailasanatha Temple, Kanchi
  • Vaikuntha Perumal Temple, Kanchi
  • Shore Temple, Mamallapuram

4. Aparajita Group

Ruler

• • Nandivarman / Aparajita (879–897 AD)

Important Monuments

• • Mukteswara Temple, Kanchi
  • Matangeswara Temple, Kanchi
  • Parashuramesvara Temple, Gudimallam

Pallava Sculpture

• The Pallavas made significant contributions to the development of sculpture in South India.
• Pallava sculpture was strongly influenced by the Buddhist artistic tradition.
• Compared to the Deccan style, it is more monumental and linear and avoids excessive ornamentation.
• The finest example of Pallava sculptural art is the famous “Descent of the Ganges”, also known as “Arjuna’s Penance,” located at Mamallapuram (Mahabalipuram).

Gupta & Post-Gupta Dynasties and Their Founders